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Conservation Service

Ecological site QX190X01X504

Silt Loam

Last updated: 6/12/2025
Accessed: 10/19/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 190X–Stratovolcanoes of the Mariana Islands

This MLRA occurs on the Northern Islands group of the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands. It consists of the islands of Pagan, Anatahan, Agrigan, Alamagan, Sarigan, and five smaller islands. The islands are largely unpopulated due to volcanic activity. The islands are cone-shaped stratovolcanoes covered with volcanic ash and cinder deposits on steep and very steep slopes. Agrigan has the highest elevation, ranging from sea level to 3,185 feet (970 meters). Average annual precipitation is about 80 inches (2,030 millimeters). Rainfall decreases northwards and increases slightly with elevation. Two-thirds of the precipitation falls between July and November. Average annual temperature is 79 degrees F (26 degrees C). The cooler dry season is between January and May. Trade winds blow from the northeast and east-northeast. Typhoons are frequent. Soils are Andisols, Inceptisols, or Entisols. The soil moisture regime is mostly ustic. The soil temperature regime is isohyperthermic. Abandoned coconut plantations occur on low elevation coastal sites. Areas above 330 feet (100 meters) are dominated by Pacific Island silvergrass or swordgrass (Miscanthus floridulus). Forest species are mixed tropical hardwoods. Large numbers of feral cows, pigs, and goats are on some of the islands (USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2006).

Classification relationships

This ecological site occurs within Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 190 – Stratovolcanoes of the Mariana Islands.

Ecological site concept

This ecological site occurs on the islands of Agrigan, Pagan, Alamagan, and Anatahan in the Mariana Islands. It occurs on moderate to very steep (8 to 150 percent) slopes of dissected footslopes, backslopes on mountainsides, or on ridge crests and interfluves on structural benches on stratovolcanic islands with representative elevations ranging from 30 to 3,120 feet (10 to 950 meters) (Soil Survey Staff, 2025; Amidon et al., 2017; Carlisle et al., 2001; Fosberg, 1960; Kessler, 2011; Liske-Clark, 2015; USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2001; Willsey et al., 2019).

Soils are moderately deep to very deep (28 to 72 inches or 71 to 183 centimeters), moderately well to well drained Andisols (Humic Ustivitrands) and Inceptisols (Vitrandic Haplustepts) that formed in basaltic and andesitic volcanic ash and cinders. Soil temperature regimes are isohyperthermic; soil moisture regimes are ustic. Textures of the soil surface horizon are ashy silt loam. Average annual rainfall is about 80 inches (2,030 centimeters). Water runoff is medium to very high; permeability is very slow to impermeable. Effective rooting depth ranges from 38 to 80 inches (95 to 200 cm). Available water-holding capacity is high to very high (6 to 10). Native and naturalized vegetation includes trees, Pacific Island silvergrass or sword grass (Miscanthus floridulus), and short grasses (Soil Survey Staff, 2025; Amidon et al., 2017; Carlisle et al., 2001; Fosberg, 1960; Kessler, 2011; Liske-Clark, 2015; USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2001; Willsey et al., 2019).

Associated sites

QX190X01X001	Very Shallow QX190X01X001 (The Very Shallow Ecological Site) and QX190X01X504 (The Silt Loam Ecological Site) occur on similar landscapes, soil parent materials, and slopes. The Silt Loam Ecological Site generally occurs at lower elevations than the Very Shallow Ecological Site. The main differences between the two sites are that soils in the Silt Loam Ecological Site have much deeper effective rooting depths and higher available water holding capacity than soils in the Very Shallow Ecological Site. This enables the Silt Loam Ecological Site to support forest vegetation rather than just the Pacific Island silvergrass (swordgrass) and other grasses that dominate the vegetation of the Very Shallow Ecological Site.

QX190X01X001

Very Shallow

QX190X01X001 (The Very Shallow Ecological Site) and QX190X01X504 (The Silt Loam Ecological Site) occur on similar landscapes, soil parent materials, and slopes. The Silt Loam Ecological Site generally occurs at lower elevations than the Very Shallow Ecological Site. The main differences between the two sites are that soils in the Silt Loam Ecological Site have much deeper effective rooting depths and higher available water holding capacity than soils in the Very Shallow Ecological Site. This enables the Silt Loam Ecological Site to support forest vegetation rather than just the Pacific Island silvergrass (swordgrass) and other grasses that dominate the vegetation of the Very Shallow Ecological Site.

Similar sites

QX190X01X502	Loamy Sand Although QX190X01X502 (The Loamy Sand Ecological Site) and QX190XX01X504 (The Silt Loam Ecological Site) share some landscape types and similar elevation ranges, they differ in that the soils of the Silt Loam Ecological Site formed in older, more weathered volcanic ash and cinders, have much greater effective rooting depths, finer textures, and much greater available water holding capacity than the soils in the Loamy Sand Ecological Site. This results in the Silt Loam Ecological Site having greater productivity and ability to support forests than the Loamy Sand Ecological Site. The two sites co-occur only on the island of Pagan and do not directly border on each other.
QX190X01X503	Sandy Loam or Loam QX190X01X503 (The Sandy Loam or Loam Ecological Site) and QX190X01X504 (The Silt Loam Ecological Site) occur on similar landscapes, soil parent materials, and at similar elevation ranges. The Silt Loam Ecological Site soils have finer textures and greater available water holding capacity than the soils of the Sandy Loam or Loam Ecological Site. Vegetative productivity should be somewhat higher in the Silt Loam Ecological Site than in the Sandy Loam or Loam Ecological Site.

QX190X01X502

Loamy Sand

Although QX190X01X502 (The Loamy Sand Ecological Site) and QX190XX01X504 (The Silt Loam Ecological Site) share some landscape types and similar elevation ranges, they differ in that the soils of the Silt Loam Ecological Site formed in older, more weathered volcanic ash and cinders, have much greater effective rooting depths, finer textures, and much greater available water holding capacity than the soils in the Loamy Sand Ecological Site. This results in the Silt Loam Ecological Site having greater productivity and ability to support forests than the Loamy Sand Ecological Site. The two sites co-occur only on the island of Pagan and do not directly border on each other.

QX190X01X503

Sandy Loam or Loam

QX190X01X503 (The Sandy Loam or Loam Ecological Site) and QX190X01X504 (The Silt Loam Ecological Site) occur on similar landscapes, soil parent materials, and at similar elevation ranges. The Silt Loam Ecological Site soils have finer textures and greater available water holding capacity than the soils of the Sandy Loam or Loam Ecological Site. Vegetative productivity should be somewhat higher in the Silt Loam Ecological Site than in the Sandy Loam or Loam Ecological Site.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Elaeocarpus joga (2) Ficus prolixa
Shrub	(1) Cyathea
Herbaceous	(1) Asplenium nidus (2) Phymatosorus scolopendria

Legacy ID

F190XY504MP

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Physiographic features

This ecological site occurs on interfluves and ridges on structural benches on stratovolcanoes and mountainsides, and rims on calderas on stratovolcanoes (USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2001). The depth to water table is greater than 72 inches (183 centimeters) and the slopes may be greater than 100 percent.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Island > Stratovolcano (2) Interfluve (3) Structural bench (4) Mountainside (5) Caldera (6) Rim
Runoff class	Medium to very high
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	30 – 3,120 ft
Slope	8 – 100%
Water table depth	72 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Climatic features

Mean annual precipitation in this ecological site is about 80 inches (2,030 millimeters) and ranges from 70 to 90 inches (1,780 to 2,285 millimeters). Rainfall likely decreases northwards and slightly increases with elevation. Climate data are scarce for these remote islands. About two-thirds of the precipitation falls between July and November. Mean annual temperature is about 83 degrees F (28 degrees C) and ranges from 79 to 86 degrees F (26 to 30 degrees C). The cooler dry season is between January and May. It is enhanced by persistent trade winds from the northeast and east-northeast. Typhoons frequently pass close to the Northern Mariana Islands. Typhoons are less common in the north than on the more southerly Marianas islands that are severely impacted by large storms about once every 8 years on average. This area is freeze-free (Fosberg, 1960; USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2001).

Observations made on the Northern Stratovolcano Islands suggest that there are local climate differences among islands and at various elevations. Based on observations of frequent clouds and fog at the highest elevations and their apparent correlation with more luxuriant vegetation, fog drip can add significant moisture to the soil in some locations (Fosberg, 1960; USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2001).

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (average)	365 days
Freeze-free period (average)	365 days
Precipitation total (average)	80 in

Soil features

The soil components associated with this ecological site are Apilam (Vitrandic Haplustepts), Dekairu, and Hatisu (Humic Ustivitrands). Soil temperature regimes are isohyperthermic; soil moisture regimes are ustic. They are shallow to very deep and moderately well to well drained. Available water holding capacity is high to very high (Soil Survey Staff, 2025; USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2001).

Table 4. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Basaltic volcanic ash (2) Andesitic volcanic ash (3) Cinders
Surface texture	(1) Ashy silt loam (2) Ashy, very gravelly loamy fine sand
Family particle size	(1) Ashy
Drainage class	Moderately well drained to well drained
Permeability class	Slow to moderately rapid
Depth to restrictive layer	24 – 71 in
Soil depth	24 – 71 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-40in)	4.5 – 9.8 in
Calcium carbonate equivalent (0-40in)	Not specified
Electrical conductivity (0-40in)	Not specified
Sodium adsorption ratio (0-40in)	Not specified
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	6.5 – 7.8
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-40in)	37%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-40in)	Not specified

Ecological dynamics

The main human disturbance is clearing land for cultivation and setting fires. Feral pigs, cattle, goats, and introduced deer are destructive to vegetation when their numbers are high (Willsey et al., 2019).

The main natural disturbance is strong storms that can damage or kill vegetation by high wind speeds. Volcanic activity on some islands can destroy vegetation by lava flows or ash deposition, setting succession back to the primary stage (Willsey et al., 2019).

State and transition model

Custom diagram

Standard diagram

Figure 1. State-and-Transition Model (STM) for The Silt Loam Ecological Site (F190XY504MP)

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Grassland State

3. Pioneer Tree-Invaded State

4. Cleared and Abandoned State

5. Farmed State

States 1, 5 and 2 (additional transitions)

1. Reference State

5. Farmed State

2. Grassland State

T1A	-	The Reference State (1) may transition to the Cleared and Abandoned State (4) by mechanical clearing of the land followed by invasion by introduced species and increase of native nondominant species.
R2A	-	The Grassland State (2) can be restored to a facsimile of the Reference State (1) by suppressing grasses and replanting native trees. Protection from ungulates will likely be needed.
T2A	-	The Grassland State (2) will transition to the Pioneer Tree-Invaded State (3) from Community Phase 2.2 as beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia) gradually forms denser stands and outcompetes other vegetation.
R2B	-	The Grassland State (2) can be restored to the Farmed State (5) by removing grass species and cultivating crops or planting agroforest.
R3B	-	The Pioneer Tree-Invaded State (3) can be restored to a facsimile of the Reference State (1) by removal of beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia) followed by replanting of a variety of native tree species commonly found in State 1.
R3A	-	The Pioneer Tree-Invaded State (3) may be restored to the Naturalized Grassland State (2) by human-caused fire.
R3C	-	The Pioneer Tree-Invaded State (3) can be restored to the Farmed State (5) by clearing the land and cultivating crops or planting agroforest.
R4A	-	The Cleared and Abandoned State (4) may be restored to a facsimile of the Reference State (1) by brush and weed control followed by replenishing native tree species and numbers.
T4B	-	The Cleared and Abandoned State (4) may transition to The Grassland State (2) if fire clears a site before development of closed forest with little understory and where Pacific Island silvergrass or swordgrass (Miscanthus floridulus) is either still present or seed sources are nearby.
T4A	-	The Cleared and Abandoned State (4) may transition to the Pioneer Tree-Invaded State (3) by if few or no seed sources for trees other than beach sheoak (Casurina equisetifolia) are near the site during the temporary stage dominated by grasses, forbs, and shrubs.
R4B	-	The Cleared and Abandoned State (4) may be restored to the Farmed State (5) by clearing the site, followed by cultivation or planting agroforest.
R5A	-	The Farmed State (5) may be restored to a facsimile of the Reference State (1) by weed control followed by replanting of native trees.
T5A	-	The Farmed State (5) will transition the Cleared and Abandoned State (4) if the site is abandoned in the presence of tree seed sources.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Elaeocarpus – Fig/Tree Fern/Hawai'i Birdnest Fern - Monarch Fern/Freycinetia

1.2. Sea Hibiscus – Aglaia/Monarch Fern – Giant Brake/Freycinetia

1.1A	-	Community phase 1.1 may shift to phase 1.2 by damage from powerful storms.
1.2A	-	Community phase 1.2 reverts to phase 1.1 by regrowth of the original dominant species if given enough time between strong storm events.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Pacific Island Silvergrass – Dimeria

2.2. Beach Sheoak/Pacific Island Silvergrass (Swordgrass) – Dimeria

2.1A	-	Community phase 2.1 will shift to Community Phase 2.2 with invasion by native beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia).
2.2A	-	Community phase 2.2 will revert to Community Phase 2.1 with human-caused fire, which kills beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia).

State 1
Reference State

The Reference State (1) has of two community phases consisting of native forest. Few if any intact examples remain of undisturbed forest in this ecological site. Dominant canopy species can vary by island and region of island, making this forest type hard to characterize by dominant or even characteristic species. The undergrowth in this forest is usually sparse and perhaps not very flammable (Amidon et al., 2017; Carlisle et al., 2001; Fosberg, 1960; Kessler, 2011; Liske-Clark, 2015; Willsey et al., 2019).

Community 1.1
Elaeocarpus – Fig/Tree Fern/Hawai'i Birdnest Fern - Monarch Fern/Freycinetia

Common trees include, among others, Aglaia mariannensis, Elaeocarpus joga, grand devil’s claws (Pisonia grandis), fig (Ficus prolixa), fig (F. tinctoria), ifil (lntsia bijuga), Tahitian screwpine (Pandanus tectorius), bakong (P. dubius), Guamia mariannae, neisosperma (Neisosperma oppositifolia), tropical almond (Terminalia catappa), Oriental trema (Trema orientalis), Pipturus argenteus, yellow-boxwood (Planchonella obovata syn. Pouteria obovata)and tiger’s claw (Erythrina variegata var. orientalis). The native tree fern (Cyathea spp. syn. Sphaeropteris aramaganensis) is present (Amidon et al., 2017; Carlisle et al., 2001; Fosberg, 1960; Kessler, 2011; Liske-Clark, 2015; Willsey et al., 2019). Freycinetia (Freycinetia reineckei) is a small tree or shrub that may be present in the understory. The understory may also include monarch fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria), giant brake (Pteris tripartita), and Hawai'i birdnest fern (Asplenium nidus) (Amidon et al., 2017; Carlisle et al., 2001; Fosberg, 1960; Kessler, 2011; Liske-Clark, 2015; Willsey et al., 2019).

Dominant plant species

(Elaeocarpus joga), tree
fig (Ficus prolixa), tree
treefern (Cyathea), shrub
Hawai'I birdnest fern (Asplenium nidus), other herbaceous
monarch fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria), other herbaceous
(Freycinetia reineckei), other herbaceous

Community 1.2
Sea Hibiscus – Aglaia/Monarch Fern – Giant Brake/Freycinetia

Storm damage to dominant overstory trees allows fast-growing or abundant subdominant species to temporarily become more abundant. Some typical species include Aglaia mariannensis, Tahitian screwpine (Pandanus tiliaceus), sea hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus), grand devil’s claws (Pisonia grandis), yellow-boxwood (Planchonella obovata), and beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia) (Amidon et al., 2017; Carlisle et al., 2001; Fosberg, 1960; Kessler, 2011; Liske-Clark, 2015; Willsey et al., 2019). Freycinetia (Freycinetia reineckei) is a small tree or shrub that may occur in the understory. The understory may also include monarch fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria) and giant brake (Pteris tripartita) (Amidon et al., 2017; Carlisle et al., 2001; Fosberg, 1960; Kessler, 2011; Liske-Clark, 2015; Willsey et al., 2019).

Dominant plant species

sea hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus), tree
(Aglaia mariannensis), tree
monarch fern (Phymatosorus scolopendria), other herbaceous
giant brake (Pteris tripartita), other herbaceous
(Freycinetia reineckei), other herbaceous

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Community phase 1.1 may shift to phase 1.2 by damage from powerful storms.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Community phase 1.2 reverts to phase 1.1 by regrowth of the original dominant species if given enough time between strong storm events.

State 2
Grassland State

The Grassland State (2) consists of two community phases consisting mostly of native grass species.

Community 2.1
Pacific Island Silvergrass – Dimeria

Pacific Island silvergrass or swordgrass (Miscanthus floridulus) is the main grass species. It provides little forage for animals. Other possible grass species are native Dmeria (Dimeria chloridiformis), golden false beardgrass (Chrysopogon aciculatus), which may be native or an early human introduction, southern crabgrass (Digitaria ciliaris) and sourgrass (D. insularis), both of which are introduced, and East Indian crabgrass (D. setigera), which may be native or an early introduction. Native ferns may include midsorus fern (Blechnum orientale), swordfern (Nephrolepis spp.), and Old World forkedfern (Dicranopteris linearis) (Amidon et al., 2017; Amidon et al., 2019; Carlisle et al., 2001; Fosberg, 1960; Kessler, 2011; Liske-Clark, 2015; Willsey et al., 2019).

Dominant plant species

Pacific Island silvergrass (Miscanthus floridulus), grass
(Dimeria chloridiformis), grass

Community 2.2
Beach Sheoak/Pacific Island Silvergrass (Swordgrass) – Dimeria

Pacific Island silvergrass or swordgrass (Miscanthus floridulus), dimeria (Dimeria chloridiformis), and other grasses and ferns still dominate this community phase. However, beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia), the primary native pioneer tree species in this ecological site, is beginning to spread throughout the community (Amidon et al., 2017; Amidon et al., 2019; Carlisle et al., 2001; Fosberg, 1960; Kessler, 2011; Liske-Clark, 2015; Willsey et al., 2019).

Dominant plant species

beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia), tree
Pacific Island silvergrass (Miscanthus floridulus), grass
(Dimeria chloridiformis), grass

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.2

Community phase 2.1 will shift to Community Phase 2.2 with invasion by native beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia).

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

Community phase 2.2 will revert to Community Phase 2.1 with human-caused fire, which kills beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia).

State 3
Pioneer Tree-Invaded State

The Pioneer Tree-Invaded State (3) consists of one community phase dominated by beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia), the primary native pioneer tree species.

Community 3.1
Beach Sheoak

Dominant plant species

beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia), tree

State 4
Cleared and Abandoned State

The Cleared and Abandoned State (4) consists of one community phase with a variable mix of native and introduced tree species. Some grasses and light-requiring shrubs are likely to persist until they are shaded out by tree canopy closure.

Community 4.1
Beach Sheoak – Tahitian Screwpine/Bellyache Bush/Pacific Island Silvergrass

This phase will be temporarily dominated by Pacific Island silvergrass (swordgrass) and other grasses and forbs, and shrubs including bellyache bush (Jatropha gossypiifolia), until the tree canopy develops. Common introduced tree species such as small Philippine acacia (Acacia confusa), woman’s tongue (Albizia lebbeck), African tulip tree (Spathodea campanulata), and monkeypod (Pithecellobium dulce) may invade sites. Some possible native species to occur here are Tahitian screwpine (Pandanus tectorius), sea hibiscus (Hibiscus tiliaceus), fig (Ficus tinctoria and F. prolixa), Aglaia mariannensis, coconut (Cocos nucifera), Guamia mariannae, Melanolepis multiglandulosa, and grand devil’s claws (Pisonia grandis). The understory may include monarch fern (Polypodium scolopendria), giant brake (Pteris tripartita), and bird’s nest fern (Asplenium nidus) (Amidon et al., 2017; Amidon et al., 2019; Carlisle et al., 2001; Fosberg, 1960; Kessler, 2011; Liske-Clark, 2015; Willsey et al., 2019).

Dominant plant species

beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia), tree
Tahitian screwpine (Pandanus tectorius), tree
bellyache bush (Jatropha gossypiifolia), shrub
Pacific Island silvergrass (Miscanthus floridulus), grass

State 5
Farmed State

The Farmed State (5) consists of one community phase that is used for cultivated agriculture or agroforestry.

Community 5.1
Various Crops or Agroforestry

Possible agroforestry tree species are coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), mango (Mangifera indica), papaya (Carica papaya), banana (Musa spp.), and citrus (Citrus spp.) (Amidon et al., 2017; Amidon et al., 2019; Carlisle et al., 2001; Fosberg, 1960; Kessler, 2011; Liske-Clark, 2015; Willsey et al., 2019).

Dominant plant species

coconut palm (Cocos nucifera), tree
breadfruit (Artocarpus altilis), tree
mango (Mangifera indica), tree
banana (Musa), tree
citrus (Citrus), tree

Transition T1A
State 1 to 4

The Reference State (1) may transition to the Cleared and Abandoned State (4) by mechanical clearing of the land followed by invasion by introduced species and increase of native nondominant species.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 1

The Grassland State (2) can be restored to a facsimile of the Reference State (1) by suppressing grasses and replanting native trees. Protection from ungulates will likely be needed.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 3

The Grassland State (2) will transition to the Pioneer Tree-Invaded State (3) from Community Phase 2.2 as beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia) gradually forms denser stands and outcompetes other vegetation.

Restoration pathway R2B
State 2 to 5

The Grassland State (2) can be restored to the Farmed State (5) by removing grass species and cultivating crops or planting agroforest.

Restoration pathway R3B
State 3 to 1

The Pioneer Tree-Invaded State (3) can be restored to a facsimile of the Reference State (1) by removal of beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia) followed by replanting of a variety of native tree species commonly found in State 1.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 2

The Pioneer Tree-Invaded State (3) may be restored to the Naturalized Grassland State (2) by human-caused fire.

Restoration pathway R3C
State 3 to 5

The Pioneer Tree-Invaded State (3) can be restored to the Farmed State (5) by clearing the land and cultivating crops or planting agroforest.

Restoration pathway R4A
State 4 to 1

The Cleared and Abandoned State (4) may be restored to a facsimile of the Reference State (1) by brush and weed control followed by replenishing native tree species and numbers.

Restoration pathway T4B
State 4 to 2

The Cleared and Abandoned State (4) may transition to The Grassland State (2) if fire clears a site before development of closed forest with little understory and where Pacific Island silvergrass or swordgrass (Miscanthus floridulus) is either still present or seed sources are nearby.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 3

The Cleared and Abandoned State (4) may transition to the Pioneer Tree-Invaded State (3) by if few or no seed sources for trees other than beach sheoak (Casuarina equisetifolia) are near the site during the temporary stage dominated by grasses, forbs, and shrubs.

Restoration pathway R4B
State 4 to 5

The Cleared and Abandoned State (4) may be restored to the Farmed State (5) by clearing the site, followed by cultivation or planting agroforest.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 1

The Farmed State (5) may be restored to a facsimile of the Reference State (1) by weed control followed by replanting of native trees.

Restoration pathway T5A
State 5 to 4

The Farmed State (5) will transition the Cleared and Abandoned State (4) if the site is abandoned in the presence of tree seed sources.

Additional community tables

Supporting information

Other references

References for the Silt Loam Ecological Site (QX190X01X504)

Amidon, F., Brunson, C., Flores, J., Frager, R., Galsim, F., Miller, S. E., Pe`a, R., and Reeves, M. K. (2019). Savannas of the Mariana Islands Archipelago. Encyclopedia of the World's Biomes. Elsevier Inc. Https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-0-12-409548-9.11986-4

Amidon, F., Metevier, M., and Miller, S. E. (2017). Vegetation Mapping of the Mariana Islands: Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands and Territory of Guam. US Fish and Wildlife Service and Pacific Islands Climate Change Cooperative. Final Report November 2017.

Carlisle, S., Parks, G., Paris, K., and Monroe, K. (2001). Soil Survey of the Islands of Agrihan, Alamagan, Anatahan, Pagan, and Sarigan, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas. Soil Survey Horizons 42:3.

Fosberg, F. R. (1960). The Vegetation of Micronesia. I. General descriptions, the vegetation of the Marianas Islands, and a detailed consideration of the vegetation of Guam. Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History 199:1.

Kessler, C. C. (2011). Invasive species removal and ecosystem recovery in the Mariana Islands; challenges and outcomes on Sarigan and Anatahan. IN: Veitch, C. R.; Clout, M. N. and Towns, D. R. (eds.). 2011. Island invasives: eradication and management. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Liske-Clark, J. (2015). Wildlife Action Plan for the Commonwealth of the Northern Mariana Islands, 2015-2025. CNMI DLRN-Division of Fish and Wildlife, Saipan, MP.

Soil Survey Staff, Natural Resources Conservation Service, United States Department of Agriculture. Official Soil Series Descriptions. Available online. Accessed [04/28/2025].

USDA-NRCS. (2006). Major Land Resource Regions. USDA Agriculture Handbook 296. http://soils.usda.gov/MLRAExplorer

USDA-Natural Resources Conservation Service. (2001). Soil Survey of the Northern Volcanic Islands, Commonwealth of the Northern Marianas. Web Soil Survey, https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx

Willsey, T., Kwon, J. A., Reeves, M. K., Amidon, F., and Miller, S. E. (2019). Mariana Islands Forest. Encyclopedia of the World's Biomes. https://doi.org/10.1016\B978-0-12-409548-9.12012-3

Contributors

David Clausnitzer PhD
John Proctor
Ann Tan
Daniel Bowman
Amy Koch
Kendra Moseley
Sarah Quistberg
Daniel Block
Jill Ficke-Benke
Brendan Brazee

Approval

Kendra Moseley, 6/12/2025

Acknowledgments

Assistance, advice, review, and/or insights:

Michael Constantinides, NRCS-PIA
Jennifer Higashino, USFWS and NRCS
Mike Kolman, NRCS
Bart Lawrence, NRCS
Sollyann Takai, NRCS
Jay Doronila, NRCS
Carolyn Auweloa, NRCS

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	06/21/2025
Approved by	Kendra Moseley
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production