Natural Resources
Conservation Service

Ecological site VX159A01X003

Isohyperthermic Perudic Naturalized Grassland (Guineagrass - Californiagrass)

Last updated: 4/17/2025
Accessed: 05/19/2025

Home / Esd catalog / MLRA 159A / Ecological site VX159A01X003

USC

Metric

General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 159A–Humid and Very Humid Volcanic Ash Soils on Low and Intermediate Rolling Mountain Slopes

This MLRA occurs in the State of Hawaii on the windward, wetter sides of the islands of Hawaii and Maui. Elevation ranges from near sea level to 6000 feet (0 to 1830 meters). Topography is rolling mountain slopes that have been eroded by steep-sided gulches. In most of the area, volcanic ash is underlain by basic igneous rocks, although in some areas volcanic ash was deposited over cinders. Average annual precipitation in most of the area ranges from 120 to 200 inches (3050 to 5080 millimeters); extremes range from 70 inches to 300 inches (1780 to 7500 millimeters). Rainfall is well-distributed throughout the year with an enhanced rainy season from November through April. Average annual air temperatures range from 54 to 73 degrees F (12 to 23 degrees C) with little seasonal variation. The dominant soil order is Andisols with an isothermic or isohyperthermic soil temperature regime and udic or perudic soil moisture regime. Native vegetation consists of medium to tall statured rain forest and open bogs.

Classification relationships

This ecological site occurs within Major Land Resource Area (MLRA) 159A - Humid and Very Humid Volcanic Ash Soils on Low and Intermediate Rolling Mountain Slopes.

Ecological site concept

This ecological site occurs on the islands of Maui and Hawaii. On Maui, it is on the area from 0 to 1200 feet (0 to 366 meters) (in places up to 1800 feet or 549 meters) elevation that wraps around the eastern coast of Maui along Route 36 from Nahiku through Hana and south to the vicinity of Hamoa. Much of the land is in private ownership, including a large ranch. On Hawaii, it is on the area from 0 to 1200 feet (0 to 366 meters) along Highway 19 from near Honokaa to Hilo.

The central concept of the Isohyperthermic Perudic Naturalized Grassland is well drained, moderately deep to very deep soils formed in deposits of volcanic ash over aa or pahoehoe lava. Annual air temperatures and rainfall are associated with very warm (isohyperthermic), usually to constantly moist (udic to perudic) soil conditions.

Significant alterations by humans over the past 150+ years have occurred in this ecological site including land clearing, intensive agricultural practices, and urbanization. The original vegetation was a tall statured ohia lehua forest. Because very little of the original native vegetation remains, the reference state of this ecological site consists of the dominant, naturalized grassland vegetation. Common introduced grasses are guineagrass (Urochloa maxima), Californiagrass (Urochloa mutica), pangolagrass (Digitaria eriantha), narrowleaf carpetgrass (Axonopus fissifolius), and hilograss (Paspalum conjugatum). In the absence of disturbance (grazing is most typical), these naturalized grasslands convert to invasive forest.

Forested areas contain many introduced species, with inkberry (Ardisia elliptica), strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum), black bamboo (Phyllostachys nigra), and African tulip tree (Spathodea campanulata) among the more common species.

Among the native plant species are ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), kopiko (Psychotria spp.), olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum), hapuu (Cibotium spp.), and bird’s nest fern (Asplenium nidus). Pandanus or Tahitian screw pine (Pandanus tectorius) trees are common at lower elevations.

Associated sites

VX159A01X501	Pahoehoe Histosol Woodland Ohia lehua - pandanus/uluhe (Old World forkedfern) The Pahoehoe Histosol Woodland is surrounded by this ecological site. It has the same climate but much shallower soils than this ecological site, resulting in vegetation dominated by uluhe fern with scattered ohia lehua trees rather than medium statured, closed canopy forest.
VX159A01X403	Isohyperthermic Udic Naturalized Grassland (Guineagrass / Desmodium) The Isohyperthermic Udic Naturalized Grassland Zone borders the drier parts of this ecological site. It has different dominant introduced grass species and supports a mix of typical dryland and moist forest species rather than the moist habitat species found in this ecological site.
VX159A01X500	Well Drained Udic and Perudic Forest The Well Drained Udic and Perudic Forest borders the highest elevations of this ecological site on the island of Hawaii. It has cooler temperatures, equal or greater rainfal, resulting in a forest of similar tall stature but having koa trees and not having pandanus and lama trees. Dominant introduced grass species overlap where the two ecological sites border each other.
VX164X01X002	Organic Surface Forest The Acidic Volcanic Ash Forest borders the highest elevations of this ecological site on the island of Maui. It has cooler temperatures equal or greater rainfall, resulting in a forest of similar medium stature but having more koa trees and not having pandanus and lama trees.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	Not specified
Shrub	Not specified
Herbaceous	(1) Urochloa maxima (2) Urochloa mutica

Legacy ID

R159AY003HI

Download full description

Physiographic features

This ecological site occurs in ash fields deposited on lava flows on sloping mountainsides of shield volcanoes.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Shield volcano > Mountain slope (2) Ash field
Runoff class	Low to medium
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	1,200 ft
Slope	35%
Water table depth	60 in
Aspect	NE, E

Table 3. Representative physiographic features (actual ranges)

Runoff class	Low to high
Flooding frequency	Not specified
Ponding frequency	Not specified
Elevation	1,800 ft
Slope	100%
Water table depth	Not specified

Climatic features

(Unless otherwise cited, the information in this section is derived from Western Regional Climate Center, cited 2020). The climate stations assigned below identify representative average annual precipitation values ranging from 94 to 135 inches (2388 to 3429 millimeters). Rain isohyet data identify that extremes of average annual precipitation may be as low as 70 inches (1778 millimeters) and as high as 235 inches (5969 millimeters). The low extremes of precipitation occur at the southernmost end of the ecological site on Maui and the westernmost end on Hawaii; gradual vegetation changes can be observed as one moves into this drier environment. Most of the precipitation falls from October through April. Average annual temperature is 72 to 73 degrees F (22 to 23 degrees C).

Table 4. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	365 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	365 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	94-135 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	365 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	365 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	83-143 in
Frost-free period (average)	365 days
Freeze-free period (average)	365 days
Precipitation total (average)	114 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 1. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 2. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 3. Monthly maximum temperature range

Bar

Line

Figure 4. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 5. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 6. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) OOKALA 223 [USC00517131], Ookala, HI
(2) KIHALANI 132.5 [USC00514459], Laupahoehoe, HI
(3) HANA AP 355 [USC00511125], Hana, HI

Soil features

The soil series correlated with this ecological site share an isohyperthermic (very warm) soil temperature regime and a udic soil moisture regime (in most years, not dry for as long as 90 cumulative days) or perudic soil moisture regime (in which precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration in all months of normal years). They are well drained and range from moderately deep to very deep.

All but one of the soils in this ecological site formed in volcanic ash deposited over aa, pahoehoe lava, or cinders and are classified as Andisols. HANA, HILO, OLAA, and OOKALA soils are classified as Hydrudands. They are hydrous, meaning that the mineral materials of the soil have a very fine texture that can hold large amounts of water.

The volcanic ash soils of the Hawaiian Islands are derived mostly from basaltic ash that varies relatively little in chemical composition (Hazlett and Hyndman 1996; Vitousek 2004)). Most of these volcanic ash soils are classified today as Andisols. Andisols and other soils with andic properties have these general management characteristics: ion exchange capacity that varies with pH, but mostly retaining anions such as nitrate; high phosphorus adsorption, which restricts phosphorus availability to plants; excellent physical properties (low bulk density, good friability, weak stickiness, stable soil aggregates) for cultivation, seedling emergence, and plant root growth; resistance to compaction and an ability to recover from compaction following repeated cycles of wetting and drying; and high capacity to hold water that is available to plants relative to their apparent texture. These characteristics are due to the properties of the parent material, the clay-size noncrystalline materials formed by weathering, and the soil organic matter accumulated during soil formation (Shoji et al. 1993).

MALAMA soils are of relatively small extent and are surrounded by the other soils of this ecological site. They are Typic Udifolists, meaning they are in the Histosols soil order. These organic soils were formed mainly in organic material consisting of highly decomposed leaves, twigs, and wood with small amounts of basic volcanic ash, cinders, and weathered aa; this is called highly decomposed parent material. Some of these soils contain slightly or moderately decomposed parent material, especially at or near the soil surface.

Unlike many organic soils composed of peat or muck that form in long-term water-saturated conditions, Malama soils form under aerobic conditions by accumulation and transformation of litter above and in gaps between aa lava rocks. The lava rock fragments that constitute aa, in which all three soil series formed, range in size from gravel (2 mm to 76 mm, or up to 3 inches) to stones (250 mm to 600 mm, or 10 to 25 inches), but are primarily gravel and cobbles (76 mm to 250 mm, or 3 to 10 inches). Below the layer of rock fragments is massive lava called “bluerock.” The interstices between rock fragments are filled with soil except in the lowest horizon near the blue rock at the bottom of the profile, where there is very little soil material.

Malama soils are classified as “euic,” which means they have relatively high base saturation as indicated by a pH of 4.5 or higher. Malama soils have pH of about 5.4, which is within the range pH range of the other soils in the ecological site.

Ripping and crushing lava by heavy machinery transforms Malama soils into Arents, which basically means sandy (the “Ar” or arenic; think of a sandy arena) soils with little or no natural horizon development (the “ents” or Entisols). Ripping pahoehoe lava eliminates the root-limiting layer of the lava. Crushing of ripped aa reduces the size of the fragments and the gaps between them and creates some finer, sand-sized particles. As much as 50 percent of the original organic matter can be lost in this process due to oxidation, but the resulting Arents are more suitable for agricultural operations. Arents are very susceptible to weed invasion, but there have been apparently successful attempts at restoration of native plant species in these soils.

Soils that are moderately deep (20 to 40 inches, or 508 to 1016 mm) or deeper over and in the interstices of underlying lava appear to present few or no limits on vegetation growth. However, these soils may present tillage difficulties when formed in aa and having significant amounts of coarse rock fragments near the surface.

Table 5. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Volcanic ash – aa lava (2) Volcanic ash – pahoehoe lava (3) Organic material
Surface texture	(1) Very stony silty clay loam (2) Medial silty clay loam (3) Cobbly loam (4) Extremely stony silty clay loam (5) Hydrous silty clay loam (6) Silty clay loam (7) Hydrous loam (8) Extremely stony
Drainage class	Well drained
Permeability class	Very slow to slow
Depth to restrictive layer	30 – 60 in
Soil depth	30 – 60 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	1 – 10%
Available water capacity (0-40in)	3 – 6 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	5.1 – 5.9
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-60in)	2 – 40%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-60in)	5 – 30%

Table 6. Representative soil features (actual values)

Drainage class	Not specified
Permeability class	Not specified
Depth to restrictive layer	30 – 60 in
Soil depth	30 – 60 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	1 – 10%
Available water capacity (0-40in)	3 – 12 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	Not specified
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-60in)	2 – 40%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-60in)	5 – 30%

Ecological dynamics

The information in this ecological site description (ESD), including the state-and-transition model (STM), was developed using archaeological and historical data, professional experience, and scientific studies. The information is representative of a complex set of plant communities. Not all scenarios or plants are included. Key indicator plants, animals, and ecological processes are described to inform land management decisions.

States and community phases within this ecological site were differentiated by inspection of data; ordination programs were not available. They were verified by professional consensus and observation of examples in the field.

Humans have altered this site considerably, starting with the native Hawaiian settlers as they brought plants with them and opened lands up for agriculture. More recently, starting in the mid-1800s, select lands around Hana began being used for sugar cultivation (Maclennan, 1995). With the removal of the forest, introduction of non-native species, and then the later practices of industrial sugar production, the site has undergone many changes over the last 150 years. These alterations changed the site with fertilizer inputs, herbicides, and by removing the fertile topsoil and native plants resulting in lasting negative impacts to the soil-plant-water cycle. Some large areas are still in cultivation of ginger, sweet potato, taro (dryland and wet taro), other truck crops, and tropical fruit orchards.

The original vegetation was a tall statured ohia lehua forest. Because very little of the original native vegetation remains, the reference state of this ecological site consists of the dominant, naturalized grassland vegetation. Common introduced grasses are guineagrass (Urochloa maxima), Californiagrass (Urochloa mutica), pangolagrass (Digitaria eriantha), narrowleaf carpetgrass (Axonopus fissifolius), and hilograss (Paspalum conjugatum). In the absence of disturbance (grazing is most typical), these naturalized grasslands convert to invasive forest.

Forested areas contain many introduced species, with inkberry (Ardisia elliptica), strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum), black bamboo (Phyllostachys nigra), and African tulip tree (Spathodea campanulata) among the more common species. Among the native plant species are ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), kopiko (Psychotria spp.), olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum), hapuu (Cibotium spp.), and bird’s nest fern (Asplenium nidus). Pandanus or Tahitian screw pine (Pandanus tectorius) trees are common at lower elevations.

Natural Disturbances

The natural (not human-caused) disturbances most important for discussion in this ecological site are lava flows, natural fires, and wind throw.

A lava flow obviously destroys all the vegetation it covers. Regrowth of vegetation through primary succession and formation of new soil proceed at widely varying rates depending on flow age, local climate, lava type (aa or pahoehoe), and proximity of vegetation seed sources. Flows located in warm, moist climates such as this are rapidly colonized the nitrogen-fixing lichen Stereocaulon vulcani, followed soon by vascular plants including ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) trees. In these environments, considerable vegetation can be established in periods measured in decades. Cobbly aa lava provides safe sites for seed germination as well as sites that promote plant rooting and soil accumulation in the gaps between cobbles. This is a more favorable situation for revegetation and soil development than flat, bare pahoehoe lava. Where lava flows are narrow or where kipukas (“islands” of surfaces not covered by lava) occur, revegetation is hastened by the proximity of seed sources from intact vegetation stands nearby. If future flows occur in this ecological site, they will likely be colonized rapidly by the introduced plant species that dominate most areas.

Heat from nearby lava flows sears and kills vegetation and can ignite wildfires that may carry to some extent, especially in dense stands of introduced grasses, ferns, and shrubs during dry periods. These effects can be seen in vegetation growing near the edges of recent flows. Large parts of the northern part of this ecological site is on lava flows ranging from 200 to 1500 years old and some other areas have flows ranging up to 13,000 years old.

Wind throw of vegetation can occur during hurricanes or other high wind events.

Human Disturbances

Human-related disturbances have been much more important than natural disturbances in this ecological site since the arrival of Polynesians and, later, Europeans. These reflected in the State and Transition Model Diagram.

Humans arrived in the Hawaiian Islands 1200 to 1500 years ago. Their population gradually increased so that by 1600 AD at least 80% of all the lands in Hawaii below about 1500 feet (roughly 500 meters) in elevation had been extensively altered by humans (Kirch 1982); some pollen core data suggest that up to 100% of lowlands may have been altered (Athens 1997). By the time of European contact late in the 18th century, the Polynesians had developed high population densities and placed extensive areas under intensive agriculture (Cuddihy and Stone 1990).

Prehistoric native lowland forest disturbance can be attributed to clearing for agriculture by hand or by fire, introduction of new plants and animals, and wood harvesting Higher elevation forests would have been much less affected, but may have been affected by factors such as inadvertently introduced plant diseases and seed predation the introduced Pacific rat (Athens 1997).

Native Hawaiians intensified virtually every arable habitat, made extremely marginal environments productive, developed innovative farming methods, and sustained production for hundreds of years without the use of external inputs, metals, draft animals, legumes or cover crops (Lincoln 2020, Handy et al., 1972; Lincoln and Vitousek, 2017). Two distinct Hawaiian agroforestry systems were utilized in this ecological site along the Hamakua coast and in the Hilo area of the island of Hawaii: A permanent arboricultural system with substantial breadfruit (Artocarpusaltilis (Parkinson) Fosberg) and a shifting cultivation system based on candlenut (Aleurites moluccanus (L.) Willd). The distributions of these systems on the landscape appear to be constrained by soil fertility and temperature, with the swidden agricultural system occurring on the more fertile portion of the landscape and the permanent arboricultural system occupying the less fertile lands. These achievements, yet to be widely recognized, should inform the intelligent design of future alternative agricultural within this and similar ecological sites in Hawaii.

Dryland taro was planted in areas that lacked a major water source, most often in upper elevation forest clearings, fern forests or un forested lands. Wet taro planting required a ready source of water, generally a naturally-flowing stream that could be diverted to flow through the taro terraces or lo`i. Ground selected for a new lo`i was first cleared of grass and weeds and allowed to absorb the nutrients from rotting hau and kukui branches and leaves that were worked into the damp soil. Lo`i boundaries followed natural land contours.

After the arrival of Europeans, documentary evidence attests to accelerated and extensive deforestation, erosion, siltation, and changes in local weather patterns (Kirch 1983) due to more intensive land use, modern tools, and introduction of more plant, animal, and microbe species.

The Polynesians introduced dogs, Pacific rats, and small pigs to the islands. Cattle, sheep, horses, goats, and larger European pigs were introduced in the final decade the 18th century. These animals ranged free on the islands, becoming very numerous and destructive by the early decades of the 19th century.

By the early 20th century, concerns over watershed conditions due to destruction of forests led to establishment of forest reserves and efforts to replant forests. Introduced tree species were often planted because they were considered to be hardier or more valuable than native species. The introduced tree species christmasberry or Brazil peppertree (Schinus terebinthifolius) was selected for planting in Hawaii because it is apparently worthless; the reasoning was that no one would be tempted to cut down worthless trees. Seeds of introduced species were often sown in the mountains by airplanes (Little and Skolmen 1989). Some of these species have proven to be highly invasive. In addition to direct competitive effects, introduced tree species (e.g., tropical ash or shamel ash (Fraxinus uhdei) and nitrogen-fixing species albizia or peacocks plume (Falcataria moluccana) produce litter that is very different in chemical composition or physical form from native plant litter, bringing about changes in nutrient cycling and physical conditions in soils and on the forest floor (Vitousek 2004).

Through the 20th and into the 21st centuries, increases in human populations with attendant land development, as well as accelerated introduction of non-native mammals, birds, reptiles, amphibians, invertebrates, plants, and microorganisms, have brought about dramatic changes to wild ecosystems in Hawaii. This ecological site evolved without the presence of large mammals or human-caused fires. The native plant community in many areas been highly disturbed and in some places destroyed due to agriculture, urban development, domestic and feral ungulate foraging, and invasion by introduced plant and animal species.

Foraging by feral cattle and pigs or forest clearing and abandonment facilitate invasion by weeds. However, introduced weeds appear able to gradually invade native stands regardless of human or ungulate disturbances.

State and transition model

Custom diagram

Standard diagram

Figure 7. R159AY003HI Isohyperthermic Udic and Perudic Naturalized Grassland

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Invaded Understory State

3. Invaded Over and Understory State

4. Native Forest State

5. Weed Invaded Grassland State

States 1 and 5 (additional transitions)

1. Reference State

5. Weed Invaded Grassland State

T1A	-	State 1 Reference transitions to State 5 Weed Invaded Grassland by long-term continuous grazing and lack of weed control measures. Remnant desirable forages have been grazed out and replaced entirely by weedy grasses, forbs, shrubs, and small trees.
R2B	-	State 2 Invaded Understory can be restored to State 1 Reference by clearing the forest with heavy machinery and planting desirable forage species. Native forest may be cleared gradually by allowing cattle access to the forest. Cattle eventually eat or destroy understory ferns, forbs, shrubs, and saplings, opening up the forest so that introduced forage species will thrive.
T2a	-	State 2 Invaded Understory State transitions to State 3 Invaded Over and Understory through the process of fast-growing weeds inhibiting reproduction of native plants and gradually replacing them. This process is accelerated by feral pigs and cattle directly damaging native plants and promoting the spread of weeds by disturbing the soil and spreading weed seeds.
R2A	-	State 2 Invade Understory may be restored to a facsimile of State 4 Native Forest. Pig-proof and deer-proof fence and removal of all ungulates are necessary. Intensive weed control must then be initiated and maintained in the long term. In some cases, large amounts of dead weed biomass must be dealt with by removal or decomposition. Reintroduction of missing native species will be necessary.
R3A	-	State 3 Invaded Over and Understory can be converted to State 1 Reference by clearing vegetation using heavy machinery, applying aggressive weed control measures, and planting desirable forage species.
T4B	-	State 4 Native Forest can transition to State 1 Reference by clearing the forest with heavy machinery and planting desirable pasture species. Native forest may be cleared gradually by allowing cattle access to the forest. Cattle eventually eat or destroy understory ferns, forbs, shrubs, and saplings, opening up the forest so that introduced grasses will thrive.
T4A	-	State 4 Native Forest transitions to State 2 Invaded Understory by the very aggressive, introduced weed species present in this ecological site invading intact native forest and gradually replacing native species in the understory. This invasion is facilitated by feral pigs and cattle that damage and consume native plants, disturb the soil, and spread weed seeds.
R5A	-	State 5 Weed Invaded Grassland can be restored to State 1 Reference by brush management, re-establishment of desirable forage species, persistent weed control, and prescribed grazing.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Guineagrass - Californiagrass (Urochloa maxima – Urochloa mutica)

1.2. Hilograss – rat-tail grass (Paspalum conjugatum – Sporobolus africanus syn. S. indicus var. capensis)

P1.1A	-	Phase 1.1 changes to phase 1.2 by long-term continuous grazing. Remnant high-quality forages have been greatly reduced in abundance and largely replaced by lower-value species. Weedy forbs and shrubs are increasing.
P1.2A	-	A grazing plan is needed that provides for intensive but temporary grazing of pastures to ensure that cattle consume some low-value forage species along with preferred forages and to allow preferred forages time to recover from defoliation. Desirable grass species are competitive and able to recover with proper management. The grazing plan may require splitting the herd, creating additional water sources, and creating multiple pastures by cross-fencing. Weed control may be necessary to eliminate some species such as inedible shrubs.

State 1
Reference State

This state consists of two community phases dominated by introduced grass species. Continuous grazing results in increased abundance of less desirable forage species, as represented by the phase change from 1.1 Guineagrass - Californiagrass to 1.2 Hilograss – rat-tail grass. Longer-term overgrazing and lack of weed control measures results in a transition to State 5 Weed-Invaded Grassland.

Community 1.1
Guineagrass - Californiagrass (Urochloa maxima – Urochloa mutica)

Figure 8. Reference State, Phase 1.1. Pangola grass. Hana silty clay loam, moderately deep variant, 3-15% slopes (HKNC), elevation 400 feet, annual rainfall 70 inches. David Clausnitzer, 7/31/08.

Figure 9. Reference State, Phase 1.1. Californiagrass with incipient invasion by shoebutton ardisia. Hana very stony silty clay loam, 3-25% slopes (HKLD), elevation 900 feet, annual rainfall 80 inches. David Clausnitzer, 7/31/08.

Dominance of desired forage species is maintained by prescribed grazing techniques that allow desired species time to recover from grazing and trampling, but includes periods of grazing of sufficient intensity to suppress invasion of weedy shrubs and trees. Failure to properly maintain the selected forage species results in this community phase shifting to community phase 1.2. There typically is little or no overstory in this community. Common forage species are Californiagrass or para grass (Urochloa mutica), digitgrass or pangolagrass (Digitaria eriantha), and guineagrass (Urochloa maxima) in mixture with leguminous desmodium species (Desmodium spp.).

Dominant plant species

guineagrass (Urochloa maxima), grass
para grass (Urochloa mutica), grass
ticktrefoil (Desmodium), other herbaceous

Community 1.2
Hilograss – rat-tail grass (Paspalum conjugatum – Sporobolus africanus syn. S. indicus var. capensis)

Figure 10. Reference State, Phase 1.2. Grassland dominated by low forage value grasses. David Clausnitzer, 7/31/08.

Figure 11. Transition from State 1, Phase 1.2, pangolagrass and Hilograss, to Weed-Invaded Grassland State, Phase 5.1. Hana silty clay loam, moderately deep variant, 3-15% slopes (HKNC), elevation 400 feet, annual rainfall 70 inches. David Clausnitzer, 7/31/08.

This community phase is dominated by grasses of lower forage value. Desirable forage legumes largely have been grazed out, and weedy forbs and shrubs have increased. It can be shifted back to phase 1.1 by using a prescribed grazing plan. There typically is little or no overstory in this community phase. Narrowleaf carpetgrass (Axonopus fissifolius), hilograss (Paspalum conjugatum), and rat-tail grass (Sporobolus africanus syn. S. indicus var. capensis) are typically the most abundant grasses. Wainaku grass (Panicum repens), Broomsedge (Adorpogon virginicus) are common dominant undesirable weedy grasses. Weedy forbs such as sensitive plant (Mimosa pudica), tarweed or Colombian waxweed (Cuphea carthagenensis), horseweed (Conyza spp)., Rubus spp., elephant's foot (Elephantopus mollis), sourbush (Pluchea indica) and ferns also are common.

Dominant plant species

hilograss (Paspalum conjugatum), grass
rat-tail grass (Sporobolus indicus var. capensis), grass

Pathway P1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Guineagrass - Californiagrass (Urochloa maxima – Urochloa mutica)

Hilograss – rat-tail grass (Paspalum conjugatum – Sporobolus africanus syn. S. indicus var. capensis)

Phase 1.1 changes to phase 1.2 by long-term continuous grazing. Remnant high-quality forages have been greatly reduced in abundance and largely replaced by lower-value species. Weedy forbs and shrubs are increasing.

Pathway P1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

Hilograss – rat-tail grass (Paspalum conjugatum – Sporobolus africanus syn. S. indicus var. capensis)

Guineagrass - Californiagrass (Urochloa maxima – Urochloa mutica)

A grazing plan is needed that provides for intensive but temporary grazing of pastures to ensure that cattle consume some low-value forage species along with preferred forages and to allow preferred forages time to recover from defoliation. Desirable grass species are competitive and able to recover with proper management. The grazing plan may require splitting the herd, creating additional water sources, and creating multiple pastures by cross-fencing. Weed control may be necessary to eliminate some species such as inedible shrubs.

State 2
Invaded Understory State

This state consists of one community phase. Native ohia lehua trees dominate the overstory. However, introduced trees, shrubs, vines, and ferns produce a dense layer of low, competitive vegetation that severely inhibits reproduction of native species. Native species are still present in this plant community, but their abundance is much reduced. Activity of feral pigs and cattle further reduces native plant abundance and produces bare, disturbed soil patches that promote weed invasion. Eventually, this state transitions to State 3 Invaded Overstory and Understory through growth of introduced tree species.

Community 2.1
Ohia lehua – inkberry/velvet tree (miconia) (Metrosideros polymorpha – Ardisia elliptica/Miconia calvescens)

While native trees still dominate the overstory, introduced tree species are beginning to grow into the secondary overstory. Smaller, shade-tolerant introduced trees and shrubs gradually produce extremely dense canopies and root systems that exclude other species. Dense stands of introduced ferns form a layer that inhibits reproduction of native species. Ohia lehua and kopiko still dominate the overstory, and the more common native trees are still present in the secondary canopy. However, introduced tree species with the potential to grow tall, such as African tulip tree (Spathodea campanulata) and tropical ash (Fraxinus uhdei), are present in the secondary canopy and increasing in abundance. Strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) and inkberry (Ardisia elliptica) are increasingly abundant, gradually forming extremely dense stands. The introduced ferns scaly swordfern (Nephrolepis minutiflora syn. brownii), Petersen’s-Spleenwort (Deparia petersenii), and parasitic maiden fern (Thelypteris parasitica) form dense stands under 3 feet (1 meter) tall. Native tree ferns may still be present. The melastomes Koster’s curse or soapbush (Clidemia hirta) and velvet tree (Miconia calvescens) are present and increasing in abundance.

Dominant plant species

'ohi'a lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), tree
shoebutton (Ardisia elliptica), tree
velvet tree (Miconia calvescens), shrub

State 3
Invaded Over and Understory State

This state consists of one community phase dominated by introduced species in both the overstory and understory. Some individual native trees may persist for their lifetime. The diversity of weedy trees, shrubs, vines, ferns, and herbs is high, and the species mix is variable. Conversion to State 1 Reference is possible by using heavy machinery and applying aggressive weed control measures.

Community 3.1
Inkberry – strawberry guava/velvet tree (miconia) (Ardisia elliptica – Psidium cattleianum/Miconia calvescens)

Figure 12. Invaded Overstory and Understory State, Phase 3.1. Mixed stand of introduced tree species invading adjoining grassland. David Clausnitzer, 7/31/08.

Ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha) trees persist until they die, but do not successfully reproduce. A few native species including kopiko, tree ferns, pandanus, and bird’s nest ferns may persist in the longer term. The introduced species present on different sites varies, but strawberry guava, inkberry, melastomes, and introduced ferns are typically present. Monotypic stands of inkberry (Ardisia elliptica), black bamboo (Phyllostachys nigra) on Maui, or strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum) are common. Species composition varies from site to site. Other common introduced tree species are velvet tree (Miconia calvescens), African tulip tree (Spathodea campanulata), and octopus tree (Schefflera actinophylla. Koster’s curse or soapbush (Clidemia hirta), lantana (Lantana camara), common guava (Psidium guajava), and ginger (Hedychium spp.) may be abundant along with introduced fern and grass species.

Dominant plant species

shoebutton (Ardisia elliptica), tree
strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum), tree
velvet tree (Miconia calvescens), shrub

State 4
Native Forest State

This state consists of one community phase. It is a forest with a tall (to about 80 feet or 25 meters), closed to open overstory, a secondary canopy of diverse trees species 25 to 40 feet (8 to 12 meters) tall, an open tree fern canopy 10 to 15 feet (3 to 4.5 meters) tall, and a diverse understory of shrubs, vines, and ferns. When cleared by machinery or long-term, heavy ungulate browsing, this state transitions to State 1 Reference. Gradual invasion by weedy, introduced plant species brings a transition to State 2 Invaded Understory.

Community 4.1
Ohia lehua/hapuu/bird’s nest fern (Metrosideros polymorpha/Cibotium glaucum/Asplenium nidus)

The overstory consists of ohia lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha). The secondary tree canopy consists of a variety of medium-stature trees. Tree ferns are common. Vines are common, both on the ground and on trees. The overstory consists of ohia lehua trees. The secondary tree canopy commonly contains of olapa (Cheirodendron trigynum), papala (Charpentiera spp.), manono (Kadua spp.), kolea (Myrsine lessertiana), olomea (Perrottetia sandwicensis), ohe (Polyscias spp.), and kopiko (Psychotria spp.). Pandanus (Pandanus tectorius) is common in some locations, becoming less common with distance from the coast. Pandanus seems to be moderately invasive, and may be more common on previously disturbed sites or where it was encouraged by the Polynesians in the past. Lama (Diospyros sandwicensis) is present (Bob Hobdy, personal communication). Tree ferns, or hapuu (Cibotium glaucum) and hapuu li (Cibotium menziesii) are common, forming an open subcanopy. Ieie (Freycenetia arborea) is common, growing both on the ground and on trees. Cyrtandra species are common in places, along with kanawao (Broussaisia arguta). Numerous small fern and fern-ally species are commonly found growing on the ground and on tree trunks. Large bird’s nest ferns (Asplenium nidus) are common on trees and on the ground.

Dominant plant species

'ohi'a lehua (Metrosideros polymorpha), tree
hapu'u (Cibotium glaucum), shrub
Hawai'I birdnest fern (Asplenium nidus), other herbaceous

State 5
Weed Invaded Grassland State

This state consists of one community phase consisting primarily of weedy shrubs and small trees. Weedy grasses and forbs dominate between shrub patches. Introduced tree species are present and becoming more abundant attain dominance in the absence of disturbance. Mechanical clearing is the most typical mechanism to keep introduced trees in check as natural fires rarely carry in these wet environments. Average annual rainfall is relatively high, producing large amounts of fine fuels that present a fire danger in rare dry periods.

Community 5.1
Common guava/rat-tail grass – narrowleaf carpetgrass (Psidium guajava/Sporobolus africanus syn. S. indicus var. capensis – Axonopus fissifolius)

Figure 13. Weed-Invaded Grassland State, Phase 5.1. A dense stand of false pikake with remnant grasses and bare ground. Hana silty clay loam, moderately deep variant, 3 to 15% slopes (HKNC), elevation 400 feet, annual rainfall 70 inches. David Clausnitzer, 7/31/08.

Figure 14. Weed-Invaded Grassland State, Phase 5.1. David Clausnitzer, 7/31/08.

Figure 15. Spatial and temporal Transition from Weed-Invaded Grassland State, Phase 5.1, to Invaded Overstory and Understory State, Phase 3.1. Black bamboo invading grassland via rhizomes. David Clausnitzer, 7/31/08.

This community phase has a wide diversity of mostly introduced species. Strawberry guava (Psidium cattleianum), common guava (Psidium guajava), inkberry (Ardisia elliptica), black bamboo (Phyllostachys nigra) on Maui, christmasberry (Schinus terebinthifolius), lantana (Lantana camara), sourbush (Pluchea carolinensis), and Koster’s curse or soapbush are common and poised to expand rapidly. Asian swordfern (Nephrolepis minutiflora syn. N. brownii) is abundant. An assortment of introduced forbs and grasses is present.

Dominant plant species

guava (Psidium guajava), tree
rat-tail grass (Sporobolus indicus var. capensis), grass
common carpetgrass (Axonopus fissifolius), grass

Transition T1A
State 1 to 5

State 1 Reference transitions to State 5 Weed Invaded Grassland by long-term continuous grazing and lack of weed control measures. Remnant desirable forages have been grazed out and replaced entirely by weedy grasses, forbs, shrubs, and small trees.

Restoration pathway R2B
State 2 to 1

State 2 Invaded Understory can be restored to State 1 Reference by clearing the forest with heavy machinery and planting desirable forage species. Native forest may be cleared gradually by allowing cattle access to the forest. Cattle eventually eat or destroy understory ferns, forbs, shrubs, and saplings, opening up the forest so that introduced forage species will thrive.

Transition T2a
State 2 to 3

State 2 Invaded Understory State transitions to State 3 Invaded Over and Understory through the process of fast-growing weeds inhibiting reproduction of native plants and gradually replacing them. This process is accelerated by feral pigs and cattle directly damaging native plants and promoting the spread of weeds by disturbing the soil and spreading weed seeds.

Restoration pathway R2A
State 2 to 4

State 2 Invade Understory may be restored to a facsimile of State 4 Native Forest. Pig-proof and deer-proof fence and removal of all ungulates are necessary. Intensive weed control must then be initiated and maintained in the long term. In some cases, large amounts of dead weed biomass must be dealt with by removal or decomposition. Reintroduction of missing native species will be necessary.

Restoration pathway R3A
State 3 to 1

State 3 Invaded Over and Understory can be converted to State 1 Reference by clearing vegetation using heavy machinery, applying aggressive weed control measures, and planting desirable forage species.

Transition T4B
State 4 to 1

State 4 Native Forest can transition to State 1 Reference by clearing the forest with heavy machinery and planting desirable pasture species. Native forest may be cleared gradually by allowing cattle access to the forest. Cattle eventually eat or destroy understory ferns, forbs, shrubs, and saplings, opening up the forest so that introduced grasses will thrive.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

State 4 Native Forest transitions to State 2 Invaded Understory by the very aggressive, introduced weed species present in this ecological site invading intact native forest and gradually replacing native species in the understory. This invasion is facilitated by feral pigs and cattle that damage and consume native plants, disturb the soil, and spread weed seeds.

Restoration pathway R5A
State 5 to 1

State 5 Weed Invaded Grassland can be restored to State 1 Reference by brush management, re-establishment of desirable forage species, persistent weed control, and prescribed grazing.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 3

State 5 Weed Invaded Grassland transitions to State 3 Invaded Over and Understory due to the presence of fast-growing, introduced tree species; wildfire may prevent this from occuring.

Additional community tables

Supporting information

Other references

Definitions
These definitions have been greatly simplified for brevity and do not cover every aspect of each topic.

Aa lava: A type of basaltic lava having a rough, jagged, clinkery surface and a vesicular interior.

Alluvial: Materials or processes associated with transportation and/or deposition by running water.

Ash field: a land area covered by a thick or distinctive deposit of volcanic ash that can be traced to a specific source and has well defined boundaries. The term “ash flow” is erroneously used in the Physiographic section of this ESD due to a flaw in the national database.

Ashy: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of less than 30 percent; a soil that holds relatively less water than “medial” and “hydrous” soils.

Available water capacity: The amount of soil water available to plants to the depth of the first root-restricting layer.

Blue rock: The dense, hard, massive lava that forms the inner core of an aa lava flow.

Bulk density: the weight of dry soil per unit of volume. Lower bulk density indicates a greater amount of pore space that can hold water and air in a soil.

Community pathway: A description of the causes of shifts between community phases. A community pathway is reversible and is attributable to succession, natural disturbances, short-term climatic variation, and facilitating practices, such as grazing management.

Community phase: A unique assemblage of plants and associated dynamic soil properties within a state.

Dominant species: Plant species or species groups that exert considerable influence upon a community due to size, abundance, or cover.

Drainage class: The frequency, duration, and depth of a water table in a soil. There are seven drainage classes, ranging from “excessively drained” (soils with very rare or very deep water tables) to “well drained” (soils that provide ample water for plant growth but are not so wet as to inhibit root growth) to “very poorly drained” (soils with a water table at or near the surface during much of the growing season that inhibits growth of most plants).

Electrical conductivity (EC): A measure of the salinity of a soil. The standard unit is deciSiemens per meter (dS/m), which is numerically equivalent to millimhos per centimeter (mmhos/cm). An EC greater than about 4 dS/m indicates a salinity level that is unfavorable to growth of most plants.

Friability: A soil consistency term pertaining to the ease of crumbling of soils.

Hydrous: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 100 percent or more; a soil that holds more water than “medial” or “ashy” soils.

Ion exchange capacity: The ability of soil materials such as clay or organic matter to retain ions (which may be plant nutrients) and to release those ions for uptake by roots.

Isohyperthermic soil temperature regime: A regime in which mean annual soil temperature is 72 degrees F (22 degrees C) or higher and mean summer and mean winter soil temperatures differ by less than 11 degrees F (6 degrees C) at a specified depth.

Kipuka: An area of land surrounded by younger (more recent) lava. Soils and plant communities within a kipuka are older than, and often quite different from, those on the surrounding surfaces.

Mauka: a Hawaiian word meaning “toward the mountain” or “inland.”

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): A geographic area defined by NRCS that is characterized by a particular pattern of soils, climate, water resources, and land uses. The island of Hawaii contains nine MLRAs, some of which also occur on other islands in the state.

Medial: A “soil texture modifier” for volcanic ash soils having a water content at the crop wilting point of 30 to 100 percent; a soil that holds an amount of water intermediate to “hydrous” or “ashy” soils.

Naturalized plant community: A community dominated by adapted, introduced species. It is a relatively stable community resulting from secondary succession after disturbance. Most grasslands in Hawaii are in this category.

Pahoehoe lava: A type of basaltic lava with a smooth, billowy, or rope-like surface and vesicular interior.

Parent material: Unconsolidated and chemically weathered material from which a soil is developed.

Perudic soil moisture regime: A very wet regime found where precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration in all months of normal years.

pH: The numerical expression of the relative acidity or alkalinity of a soil sample. A pH of 7 is neutral; a pH below 7 is acidic and a pH above 7 is basic.

Phosphorus adsorption: The ability of soil materials to tightly retain phosphorous ions, which are a plant nutrient. Some volcanic ash soils retain phosphorus so strongly that it is partly unavailable to plants.

Reference community phase: The phase exhibiting the characteristics of the reference state and containing the full complement of plant species that historically occupied the site. It is the community phase used to classify an ecological site.

Reference state: A state that describes the ecological potential and natural or historical range of variability of an ecological site.

Restoration pathway: A term describing the environmental conditions and practices that are required to recover a state that has undergone a transition.

Sodium adsorption ratio (SAR): A measure of the amount of dissolved sodium relative to calcium and magnesium in the soil water. SAR values higher than 13 create soil conditions unfavorable to most plants.

Soil moisture regime: A term referring to the presence or absence either of ground water or of water held at a tension of less than 1500 kPa (the crop wilting point) in the soil or in specific horizons during periods of the year.

Soil temperature regime: A defined class based on mean annual soil temperature and on differences between summer and winter temperatures at a specified depth.

Soil reaction: Numerical expression in pH units of the relative acidity or alkalinity or a soil.

State: One or more community phases and their soil properties that interact with the abiotic and biotic environment to produce persistent functional and structural attributes associated with a characteristic range of variability.

State-and-transition model: A method used to display information about relationships between vegetation, soil, animals, hydrology, disturbances, and management actions on an ecological site.

Transition: A term describing the biotic or abiotic variables or events that contribute to loss of state resilience and result in shifts between states.

Udic soil moisture regime: A regime in which the soil is not dry in any part for as long as 90 cumulative days in normal years, and so provides ample moisture for plants. In Hawaii it is associated with forests in which hapuu (tree ferns) are usually moderately to highly abundant.

Other References

Armstrong RW. 1973. Atlas of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

Athens JS. Ch. 12 Hawaiian Native Lowland Vegetation in Prehistory in Historical Ecology in the Pacific Islands – Prehistoric Environmental and Landscape Change. Kirch PV and TL Hunt, eds. 1997. Yale U. Press, New Haven.

Burney DA, HF James, LP Burney, SL Olson, W Kikuchi, WL Wagner, M Burney, D McCloskey, D Kikuchi, FV Grady, R Gage II, and R Nishek. 2001. Fossil evidence for a diverse biota from Kauai and tis transformation since human arrival. Ecological Monographs 71:615-641.

Craighill ES and EG Handy. 1991. Native Planters in Old Hawaii – Their Life, Lore, and Environment. Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233, Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu, HI

Cuddihy LW and CP Stone. 1990. Alteration of Native Hawaiian Vegetation: Effects of Humans, Their Activities and Introductions. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Cooperative National Park Resources Study Unit.

Giambelluca TW and TA Schroeder. 1998. Climate. In: Atlas of Hawaii, 3rd edition. SP Juvik, JO Juvik, and RR Paradise, eds. pp. 49-59. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Handy ESC Handy EG and Pukui MK. 1972. Native Planters in Old Hawaii Their Life, Lore, and Environment. (RevisedEdition,1991).Bernice P. Bishop Museum Bulletin 233. Honolulu. Hawaiian understanding of climate, weather and seasons.

Hazlett RW and DW Hyndman. 1996. Roadside Geology of Hawaii. Mountain Press Publishing Company, Missoula MT.

Henke LA. 1929. A Survey of Livestock in Hawaii. Research Publication No. 5. University of Hawaii, Honolulu.

Jacobi JD. 1989. Vegetation Maps of the Upland Plant Communities on the Islands of Hawaii, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai. Technical Report 68. Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit, University of Hawaii at Manoa and National Park Service.

Juvik JO and D Nullet. 1993. Relationships between rainfall, cloud-water interception, and canopy throughfall in a Hawaiian montane forest. In: Tropical Montane Cloud Forests. Proc. Int. Sym., San Juan, PR. Hamilton LS, JO Juvik, and FN Scatena, eds. East-West Center.

Kirch PV. 1982. The impact of the prehistoric Polynesians in the Hawaiian ecosystem. Pacific Science 36(1):1-14.

Kirch PV. 1985. Feathered Gods and Fishhooks: An Introduction to Hawaiian Archaeology and Prehistory. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

Kirch PV. 2000. On the Road of the Winds: An Archaeological History of the Pacific Islands Before European Contact. Berkeley: University of California Press.

Leopold LB. 1949. The interaction of trade wind and sea breeze, Hawaii. Journal of Meteorology 6: 312-320.

Lincoln, NK. 2020. Agroforestry form and ecological adaptation in ancient Hawai'i: Extent of the pākukui swidden system of Hāmākua,Hawai'i Island. Agricultural Systems, Volume 181, 2020. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.agsy.2020.102808. (https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0308521X19309576).

Lincoln, N.K., Vitousek, P.M., 2017. Indigenous Polynesian agriculture in Hawaii. In:
Oxford Research Encyclopedia of Environmental Science March (2017). Oxford
University Press, Oxford, UK. https://doi.org/10.1093/acrefore/9780199389414.
013.376.

Little EL Jr. and RG Skolmen. 1989. Common Forest Trees of Hawaii (Native and Introduced). US Department of Agriculture-US Forest Service Agriculture Handbook No. 679. (out of print). Available at www.fs.fed.us/psw/publications/documents/misc/ah679.pdf

Maclennan CA. 1995. Foundations of Sugar's Power: Early Maui Plantations, 18540-1860.
The Hawaiian Journal of History, vol. 29 (1995). Mueller-Dombois D and FR Fosberg. 1998. Vegetation of the Tropical Pacific Islands. Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.

Palmer DD. 2003. Hawaii’s Ferns and Fern Allies. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

Pratt HD. 1998. A Pocket Guide to Hawaii’s Trees and Shrubs. Mutual Publishing, Honolulu.

Ripperton JC and EY Hosaka. 1942. Vegetation zones of Hawaii. Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station Bulletin 89:1-60.

Rock JF. The Indigenous Trees of the Hawaiian Islands. 1st edition 1913, reprinted 1974, Charles E. Tuttle Company, Rutland, VT and Tokyo, Japan.

Schroeder TA. 1981. Characteristics of local winds in northwest Hawaii. Journal of Applied Meteorology 20: 874-881.

Shoji SD, M Nanzyo, and R Dahlgren. 1993. Volcanic Ash Soils: Genesis, Properties and Utilization. Elsevier, New York.

Sohmer SH. and R Gustafson. 2000. Plants and Flowers of Hawaii. University of Hawaii Press, Honolulu.

Soil Survey Staff. 1999. Soil Taxonomy – A Basic System of Soil Classification for Making and Interpreting Soil Surveys. USDA – NRCS Agriculture Handbook Number 436.

Steadman DW. 1995. Prehistoric extinctions of Pacific island birds: biodiversity meets zooarchaeology. Science 267:1123-1131.

USDA-NRCS-PIA T&E Species GIS files. Not publicly available.

USDA-SCS. 1972. Soil Survey of Islands of Kauai, Oahu, Maui, Molokai, and Lanai, State of Hawaii. Foote DE, Hill EL, Nakamura S, and F Stephens, in cooperation with The University of Hawaii Agricultural Experiment Station.

USDI-USGS. 2006. A GAP Analysis of Hawaii. Final Report and Data.

Vitousek P. 2004. Nutrient Cycling and Limitation: Hawaii as a Model Ecosystem. Princeton University Press, Princeton and Oxford.

Wagner WL, DR Herbst, and SH Sohmer. 1999. Manual of the Flowering Plants of Hawaii, Revised Edition. Bishop Museum Press, Honolulu.

Whistler WA. 1995. Wayside Plants of the Islands: A Guide to the Lowland Flora of the Pacific Islands. Isle Botanica, Honolulu.

Contributors

David Clausnitzer
John Proctor
Mike Kolman
Amy Koch
Mathew Cocking
Carolyn Wong
Kendra Moseley
Jennifer Higashino

Approval

Kendra Moseley, 4/17/2025

Acknowledgments

Assistance, advice, review, and/or insights:

Randy Bartlett, Puu Kukui Watershed Preserve
Alison Cohan, The Nature Conservancy
Michael Constantinides, NRCS-PIA
Gordon Cran, Kapapala Ranch
Diana Crow, Ulupalakua Ranch
Lance DeSilva, Hawaii DLNR
Kerri Fay, Waikamoi Preserve, The Nature Conservancy
Alex Franco, Kaupo Ranch
Ranae Ganske-Cerizo, NRCS
Carl Hashimoto, NRCS
Bob Hobdy, consultant, Maui
Wallace Jennings, NRCS
Mel Johansen, The Nature Conservancy
Jordan Jokiel, Haleakala Ranch
David Leonard, volunteer
Penny Levin
Reese Libby, GIS - NRCS
Hannah Lutgen, Maui SWCD
Joseph May, NRCS
Scott Meidel, Haleakala Ranch
Anna Palomino, Hoolawa Farms Inc.
Jon Price, USGS
Tamara Sherrill, USFWS, Maui Nui Botanical Garden
Amber Starr, Hana Ranch
Kahana Stone, NRCS
Mark Vaught, Water Resources, Alexander & Baldwin
Jacqueline Vega, NRCS
Rich von Wellsheim, Whispering Bamboos, Kipahulu

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	04/18/2025
Approved by	Kendra Moseley
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production