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Ecological site PX136X00X710

Basic Upland Woodland, Expansive Clay, Seasonally Wet and Dry

Last updated: 5/02/2025
Accessed: 05/19/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 136X–Southern Piedmont

This MLRA is on a large piedmont underlain by metamorphic and igneous bedrock. It stretches from north-central Virginia to east-central Alabama, running parallel to the Appalachian highlands to the northwest and the Atlantic coast to the southeast.

MLRA 136 has only subtle climatic differences with MLRA 148 (Northern Piedmont), with which it shares a common geologic origin. This adjacent MLRA sits to the north. Along the fall line, it shares a boundary with MLRA 133A (Southern Coastal Plain), MLRA 137 (Carolina and Georgia Sand Hills), and 133C (Gulf Coastal Plain). Here, unconsolidated Coastal Plain sediments intersect the much older Piedmont bedrock. Along it's northwestern boundary, it sits adjacent to MLRAs 130B (Southern Blue Ridge), 130A (Northern Blue Ridge), and 128 (Southern Appalachian Ridges and Valleys). These MLRAs are distinguished from the Southern Piedmont by topographic and elevational differences, as well as differences in the age, origin, and degree of metamorphism of the underlying bedrock.

Five states are intersected by the MLRA, including North Carolina (29 percent), Georgia (27 percent), Virginia (20 percent), South Carolina (17 percent), and Alabama (7 percent). The MLRA extent makes up about 63,720 square miles (165,034 square kilometers).

MLRA PHYSIOGRAPHY
The landscape is generally rolling to hilly, with a well-defined drainage pattern. Streams have dissected the original Piedmont plateau, forming narrow ridgetops, somewhat broad interfluves, and short, steep side slopes adjacent to the streams and drainageways. With some exceptions, the valley floors are generally narrow and make up about 10 percent or less of the land area. The associated stream terraces are generally small and of minor extent.

The landscape is moderately dissected overall, with isolated erosional remnants (monadnocks) and other areas of high topographic relief interspersed. Over most of the MLRA, elevation ranges from approximately 325 to 1,315 feet (100 to 400 meters), with elevations generally increasing toward the Appalachian Highlands, in the upper Piedmont, and decreasing toward the Coastal Plain, in the lower Piedmont.

The major rivers that cross this area en route to the ocean include, from north to south, the James, Roanoke, Cape Fear, Savannah, Altamaha, Chattahoochee, and Alabama Rivers. These rivers typically originate within the Piedmont or in the Blue Ridge. They flow east and south across the Coastal Plain and empty into the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of America.

MLRA GEOLOGY
Precambrian and Paleozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks underlie almost all of this MLRA. The dominant metamorphic rock types include gneiss, schist, slate, argillite, and phyllite, among others. Dominant igneous rock types include granite and other related felsic crystalline rocks. Mafic intrusive rocks, including gabbro, diabase, amphibolite, and other dark colored rocks, underlie a minority of the upland landscape. These mafic intrusions crop out in the form of dikes and sills, and often weather to produce soils high in base cations.

The Carolina Slate Belt runs lengthwise through the east-central part of the MLRA, in southern Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and the eastern-most part of the Georgia Piedmont. This region is underlain by fine-grained metasedimentary and metavolcanic rock, which generally weathers to produce soils high in silt.

From Virginia to North Carolina, and in a single county in South Carolina, fault-bounded Triassic Basins are scattered amongst the igneous and metamorphic uplands. These basins are underlain by Triassic and Jurassic siltstone, shale, sandstone, and mudstone, which were laid down in response to continental rifting and subsequent erosion during the Mesozoic era.

MLRA SOILS
The dominant soil orders of the MLRA are Ultisols, Inceptisols, and Alfisols. Ultisols and Alfisols are typically found on more stable landforms, such as interfluves, gentle hillslopes, broad ridgetops, and stream terraces, while Inceptisols are typically found on less stable landforms, including flood plains, steep hillslopes, and narrow ridgetops.

Soils of the region predominantly have a thermic temperature regime, a udic moisture regime, and generally have kaolinitic or mixed mineralogy. In the upper Piedmont of Virginia and North Carolina however, soils have a mesic soil temperature regime, as depicted in figure 2. The mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA is oriented from northeast to southwest and occupies approximately 18 percent of the MLRA extent, or 11,729 square miles (30,377 square kilometers).

Broadly speaking, soils of the Southern Piedmont uplands are shallow to very deep, well drained, and loamy or clayey. Soils of the river valleys are generally very deep, well to poorly drained, and loamy. Soils tend to be finer-textured than in Coastal Plain regions.

MLRA CLIMATE
In general, precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year in this MLRA, with occasional drought-like conditions extending from late summer into autumn. During the growing season, most of the rainfall comes from high-intensity, convective thunderstorms. Significant moisture also comes from the movement of warm and cold fronts across the MLRA from November to April. High amounts of rain can also occur during hurricanes, usually during the months of August through October.

Over most of the MLRA, snowfall is typically light, though overall, the mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA features colder temperatures, more snowfall, and a shorter growing season than in the thermic portion. The cooler climate in this region supports an increase in species with northern or Blue Ridge affinities. Both the mean annual temperature and the length of the freeze-free period increase from north to south and with decreasing elevation from the upper to the lower Piedmont.

MLRA LAND USE AND RESOURCES
Once largely cultivated, much of this region is now planted to loblolly pine or has reverted to successional pine and hardwood forests. The more productive lands support small to medium-size family farms that produce crops and livestock, while the less productive lands have been in forest for some time. Most of the open areas are used for grazing beef cattle, though in years past, dairy cattle were also important to the local economy. The principal crops of the region include corn, soybeans, and small grains. Burley tobacco remains a crop of local importance. Cotton is grown in the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA.

Several major land cover transformations have occurred in the Southern Piedmont over the past several centuries; from open woodlands sculpted by fire, to farmland, to closed forests and planted pine, past land uses have played an outsized role in shaping present-day soils and vegetation patterns in the region. Land-use intensity peaked with the arrival of the industrial revolution, which gradually increased demand for textiles. Cotton became the dominant crop over much of the region.

In spite of early successes, two centuries of poor management practices accelerated soil erosion, stripping away the fertility and moisture-supplying capacity of soils. In addition to soil losses in the uplands, legacy sediments derived from the eroded land rapidly accumulated in the river valleys below, often leading to changes in hydrology and flooding frequency.

After being stripped of it's loamy topsoil, many areas of the Piedmont had been so badly eroded as to render the land unsuitable or economically impractical for agriculture. The effects of erosion were widespread, with cumulative soil loss estimates ranging from 5 to 10 inches on average. The steeper slopes, which had often been cleared and farmed at the height of the Cotton era, generally suffered greater losses. By the 1930's, crop production was in rapid decline in the Southern Piedmont. The loss of soil productivity due to erosion, losses to the cotton boll weevil, development of synthetic fibers, and the onset of the Great Depression all contributed to rapid abandonment of cropland. By 1960, cropland acres had decreased by more than 50 percent in nearly every county in the Southern Piedmont.

While crop production is still important today on the more productive lands, those of lower productivity, or those that were subject to severe erosion, were often abandoned some time ago. Typically, they have either reverted to forest, or have been converted to other uses. Although the productivity of soils was greatly reduced through erosion, less intensive land uses such as grazing and forestry were still feasible. These land uses gained popularity as patterns of urban migration, low commodity prices, and other factors gradually made crop production less economical on the marginal lands.

In recent years, large-scale adoption of soil conservation practices have led to better outcomes with respect to erosion in much of MLRA, increasing the economic viability and long-term sustainability of Piedmont farms. Despite some success, water erosion remains one of the most important soil resource concerns in the MLRA.

Other major resource concerns include increasing conversion of prime farmland and farmland of statewide importance to urban uses. Throughout the MLRA, metropolitan areas are expanding into lands that have historically been used for timber or agriculture. This change in land use is occurring rapidly in the corridor called the Piedmont Crescent, which extends from Atlanta, Georgia, to Raleigh, North Carolina.

HISTORIC VEGETATION COVER
Over most of the Southern Piedmont uplands, the historic oak-hickory, or oak-hickory-pine forest, once covered large portions of the landscape. It was dominated by upland oaks, such as white oak (Quercus alba), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and southern red oak (Quercus falcata), with a smaller contribution from hickories (Carya spp.) and pines. The principal pine species are shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), and to the north and west, Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana). In the southernmost and easternmost portions of the MLRA, the historic montane longleaf pine forest, dominated by longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), shortleaf pine (P. echinata), and dry-site oaks, was found on ridgetops and steep south or west-facing slopes.

According to historic accounts, forests and woodlands of the past were generally more open and park-like, having been exposed to a more frequent fire regime. Piedmont prairies, likely maintained by Native Americans, were also reportedly common across the landscape, as were fire-maintained canebrakes along the streams (Trimble 1974; Daniels 1987; Griffith et al. 2002; Van Lear et al. 2004; Dearman and James 2019; Schomberg et al. 2020; USDA-NRCS 2022).

LRU notes

MLRA 136 is one of the largest MLRAs in the United States. It has a broad north-south and east-west extent and covers a wide range of elevations. The MLRA is partitioned by the mesic-thermic line, which divides the MLRA into mesic and thermic soil temperature regimes (figure 2.). The mesic soil temperature regime was delineated based on estimates of the native range of loblolly pine, which was historically absent in this part of the MLRA. In addition, this region is said to represent the northern and western limits of cotton production, an important crop to the south and east.

ESDs developed for this MLRA were split geographically into mesic and thermic ecological site concepts. Climate variation across the MLRA extent warrants the development of Land Resource Unit (LRU) classifications, to further subdivide the MLRA and support more precise Ecological Site Descriptions.

Classification relationships

APPLICABLE USNVC ASSOCIATIONS
CEGL003714 Quercus stellata - Quercus marilandica - Carya (carolinae-septentrionalis, glabra) / Schizachyrium scoparium; CEGL004037 Quercus phellos - Quercus (alba, stellata) - Carya carolinae-septentrionalis; CEGL008484 Quercus phellos - Quercus (michauxii, shumardii) / (Quercus oglethorpensis) / Zephyranthes atamasca

APPLICABLE EPA ECOREGIONS
Level III: 45. Piedmont
Level IV: 45b. Southern Outer Piedmont; 45c. Carolina Slate Belt; 45f. Northern Outer Piedmont; 45g. Triassic Basins (EPA 2013).

APPLICABLE USFS ECOLOGICAL UNITS
Domain: Humid Temperate
Division: Subtropical
Ecological province: 231. Southeastern Mixed Forest
Ecological sections: 231I.Central Appalachian Piedmont; 231A. Southern Appalachian Piedmont (Cleland et al. 2007).

Based on the USGS physiographic classification system (Fenneman and Johnson 1946), most of MLRA 136 is in the Piedmont Upland section of the Piedmont province, in the Appalachian Highlands division.

Ecological site concept

This ecological site includes seasonally wet and seasonally dry circumneutral soils on broad interfluves, upland flats, and gentle hillslopes. It is geographically restricted to the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA. This ecological site is subject to wetting and drying cycles typical of "hydroxeric" conditions, due primarily to shrink-swell clay minerology and low relief.

Soils on this ecological site are weathered from mafic intrusive rock. They are typically moderately deep to very deep, somewhat poorly to moderately well drained Alfisols, which formed in residuum from dark colored rocks high in ferromagnesian minerals. The subsoil has a high clay content and the clay fraction is typically dominated by 2:1 clay minerals. Base saturation is greater than or equal to 35 percent in the subsoil.

A transient water table is present within 12 to 40 inches of the soil surface during the cooler months. Still, these wet conditions are temporary and in most instances the influence of dry edaphic conditions, which develop over the course of the growing season, are reflected in the character of the vegetation. Seasonally wetter examples, in which the water table rises closer to the surface, are covered by PX136X00X700, a similar and sometimes associated ecological site in the northern half of the MLRA.

The reference state supports an open to partially open canopy woodland with a species-rich herbaceous understory. Important canopy species include post oak (Quercus stellata), blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), willow oak (Quercus phellos), and several species of hickory (Carya spp.). Dominant land uses include pasture and hayland, cropland, planted pine, wildlife habitat, and other land uses meant to conserve threatened plants and animals. Soils are poorly-suited to most building applications or septic system installations because of seasonal wetness and shrink-swell hazard.

ES CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARY
• Thermic soil temperature regime
• Occurs on Piedmont uplands, on broad interfluves, upland flats, and gentle hillslopes
• Parent materials: mafic intrusive rock
• Base saturation: ≥ 35 percent in the subsoil
• Seasonal high water table: perched, 12 - 40 inches from the soil surface
• Soils: moderately deep to very deep, somewhat poorly to moderately well drained Alfisols
• The subsoil has a high clay content and a high shrink-swell potential

Associated sites

PX136X00X700	Basic Upland Flats and Depressions, Expansive Clay, Seasonally Wet and Dry Found in slightly lower and wetter landscape positions, in depressions or at the heads of drainageways. The seasonal high water table is shallower (0-12 inches from the soil surface), supporting a relative decrease in dry-site species, of which blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica) is most notable.
PX136X00X720	Basic Upland Forest, Moist Found in similar or slightly higher landscape positions. The clay fraction is not dominated by shrink-swell clay minerals, reducing fluctuations in plant available water and allowing moisture-loving plant species to increase in abundance, of which northern red oak (Quercus rubra) is most notable. In addition, the seasonal high water table is deeper (≥ 40 inches from the soil surface, usually deeper). Species tolerant of anaerobic conditions, such as willow oak (Quercus phellos), are generally scarce or absent.
PX136X00X730	Basic Upland Forest, Depth Restriction, Dry Found in higher landscape positions on narrow ridges and steep hillslopes. A seasonal high water table is usually absent within 72 inches of the soil surface. Species tolerant of anaerobic conditions, such as willow oak (Quercus phellos), are generally absent.
PX136X00X810	Acidic Upland Forest, Seasonally Wet Often found nearby in similar landscape positions. Soils weathered from acidic rocks. Base saturation is less than 35 percent. Basic indicator species are generally scarce or absent in the understory.

Similar sites

PX136X00X400	Triassic Basin Upland Woodland, Expansive Clay, Seasonally Wet and Dry Soil properties are similar, but parent materials are Triassic sedimentary rock. Soil pH is typically lower, reducing cover from basic indicator species in the understory.
PX136X00X210	Mesic Temperature Regime, Basic Upland Woodland, Expansive Clay, Seasonally Wet and Dry The soil temperature regime is mesic, occurring outside of the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).
PX136X00X700	Basic Upland Flats and Depressions, Expansive Clay, Seasonally Wet and Dry Soil properties are similar, but the seasonal high water table is shallower (0-12 inches from the soil surface). Cover from dry-site species tends to decrease as seasonal wetness increases, of which blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica) is most notable.

PX136X00X400

Triassic Basin Upland Woodland, Expansive Clay, Seasonally Wet and Dry

Soil properties are similar, but parent materials are Triassic sedimentary rock. Soil pH is typically lower, reducing cover from basic indicator species in the understory.

PX136X00X210

Mesic Temperature Regime, Basic Upland Woodland, Expansive Clay, Seasonally Wet and Dry

The soil temperature regime is mesic, occurring outside of the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).

PX136X00X700

Basic Upland Flats and Depressions, Expansive Clay, Seasonally Wet and Dry

Soil properties are similar, but the seasonal high water table is shallower (0-12 inches from the soil surface). Cover from dry-site species tends to decrease as seasonal wetness increases, of which blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica) is most notable.

Figure 1. EPA level IV ecoregions of the Southern Piedmont (45).

Figure 2. Spatial illustration of soil temperature regimes of the Southern Piedmont.

Figure 3. Spatial extent of this ecological site representing the major areas where this site is important on the landscape.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Quercus stellata (2) Quercus marilandica
Shrub	(1) Viburnum (2) Symphoricarpos orbiculatus
Herbaceous	(1) Schizachyrium scoparium (2) Danthonia spicata

Legacy ID

F136XY710NC

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Physiographic features

This ecological site is found on broad interfluves, upland flats, gentle hillslopes, and on some low ridges. It is found throughout the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the Piedmont. It can be found in virtually every ecoregion in this portion of the MLRA, but is more common in low to moderately dissected parts of the Piedmont plateau, such as the Southern Outer Piedmont (ecoregion 45b), the Northern Outer Piedmont (45f), Triassic Basins (45g), and parts of the Carolina Slate Belt (45C). It is uncommon in ecoregions noted for highly dissected topography, such as the Talladega Uplands (45d), Pine Mountain Ridges (45h), Kings Mountain (45i), and the Southern Inner Piedmont (45a). Sites are typically gently sloping to nearly level, with a representative slope of 2 to 6 percent and a maximum slope of 15 percent.

The geologic substrate on this ecological site is mafic intrusive rock, such as diabase, gabbro, and other related dark colored rocks high in ferromagnesian minerals. The material was transported upward through fissures in the earth's crust in the form of mafic dikes and sills. These structures cut through the surrounding country rock. As a result, this ecological site often occurs in small patches, and is often adjacent to or intermingled with acidic uplands, or basic uplands with dissimilar soil moisture conditions.

Figure 4. Typical soil-landscape relationships of the Southern Piedmont Mixed Felsic and Mafic Soil System. Iredell soils are associated with this ecological site, depicted here in low-lying uplands.

Figure 5. Typical soil-landscape relationships of the Triassic Basin Soil System, where mafic intrusions are a common occurrence. Iredell soils, which formed in mafic intrusive rock, are associated with this ecological site, depicted here on a broad interfluve.

Figure 6. Typical soil-landscape relationships of the Southern Piedmont Mixed Felsic and Mafic soil system. Orange soils are associated with this ecological site, depicted here on hillslopes.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Hillslope profile	(1) Summit (2) Shoulder (3) Backslope
Landforms	(1) Piedmont > Interfluve (2) Piedmont > Flat (3) Piedmont > Hillslope (4) Piedmont > Ridge
Runoff class	High to very high
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	240 – 940 ft
Slope	2 – 6%
Water table depth	14 – 28 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Table 3. Representative physiographic features (actual ranges)

Runoff class	Low to very high
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	150 – 1,190 ft
Slope	15%
Water table depth	12 – 40 in

Climatic features

On this ecological site, the average mean annual precipitation is 46 inches. On average, the rainiest months occur from July through August, as well as in March. The driest months occur October through December, as well as in April and May.

Table 4. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	165-194 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	195-226 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	44-47 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	158-199 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	185-235 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	42-49 in
Frost-free period (average)	179 days
Freeze-free period (average)	211 days
Precipitation total (average)	46 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 7. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 8. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 9. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 10. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 11. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 12. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) CEDAR CREEK 2E [USC00381479], Blythewood, SC
(2) CHESTER 1 SE [USC00381633], Chester, SC
(3) ELBERTON 2 N [USC00093060], Elberton, GA
(4) CLARKSVILLE [USC00441746], Clarksville, VA
(5) WADESBORO [USC00318964], Wadesboro, NC
(6) SANFORD 8 NE [USC00317656], Sanford, NC
(7) DURHAM [USC00312515], Durham, NC
(8) HAW RIVER 1E [USC00313919], Graham, NC
(9) GREENWOOD [USC00383754], Greenwood, SC
(10) NEWBERRY [USC00386209], Newberry, SC
(11) CROZIER [USC00442142], Maidens, VA
(12) WEST POINT [USC00099291], Lanett, GA
(13) CHASE CITY [USC00441606], Chase City, VA
(14) CHARLOTTE DOUGLAS AP [USW00013881], Charlotte, NC
(15) ASHLAND 3 ENE [USC00010369], Ashland, AL
(16) MILLEDGEVILLE [USC00095874], Milledgeville, GA
(17) SALISBURY [USC00317615], Salisbury, NC
(18) SILER CITY 2 N [USC00317924], Siler City, NC
(19) LAWRENCEVILLE 3 E [USC00444768], Freeman, VA
(20) JOHN H KERR DAM [USC00444414], Boydton, VA
(21) MONTICELLO [USC00095988], Monticello, GA
(22) SILOAM 3N [USC00098064], Greensboro, GA
(23) MC CORMICK 9 E [USC00385658], Mc Cormick, SC
(24) PARR [USC00386688], Jenkinsville, SC
(25) WINTHROP UNIV [USC00389350], Rock Hill, SC
(26) YORK 4 S [USC00389625], York, SC
(27) OXFORD AG [USC00316510], Oxford, NC
(28) OXFORD 1 E [USC00316507], Oxford, NC
(29) ROXBORO 7 ESE [USC00317516], Roxboro, NC
(30) GREENBAY 3 NE [USC00443565], Burkeville, VA
(31) WASHINGTON 2 ESE [USC00099157], Washington, GA
(32) CLARKS HILL 1 W [USC00381726], Modoc, SC

Soil features

Soils on this ecological site are typically moderately deep to very deep, moderately well drained to somewhat poorly drained Alfisols. Parent materials are residuum derived from mafic intrusive rock, such as diabase, gabbro, amphibolite, and other dark colored rocks high in ferromagnesian minerals.

Soils associated with this ecological site generally have a subsoil with a high clay content and are typically in a fine or very fine particle size family. In representative pedons, subsoil layers have a very plastic, very sticky, and very firm consistence. The clay fraction is dominated by 2:1 clay minerals, namely montmorillonite or others in the smectite group. Slickensides are a common feature. Partially weathered mafic rock is often close to the surface, commonly within 60 inches or less of the soil surface.

Reaction in the subsoil is typically moderately acid to neutral (pH 5.6 to 7.3). In the surface layers, reaction varies with land use and management. Under low input or forested conditions, it generally falls somewhere between pH 5.1 and 7.3. Base saturation is greater than or equal to 35 percent in the subsoil.

As a result of their clay minerology, soils on this ecological site are subject to distinct wetting and drying cycles, fluctuations in plant available water, and seasonal periods of soil saturation and anaerobic conditions. Soils dominated by 2:1 clay minerals can store large volumes of water at field capacity. Soil water content can remain high for extended periods, typically during the winter and early spring. However, these clay minerals also hold on to water more tightly when they do dry out, leaving little water available to plants during dry periods.

The result is a water availability dynamic that alternates between being saturated and anaerobic during the cooler months, to being thoroughly parched during warm-season dry spells. These soil properties interact with landscape position and local hydrology to produce a continuum of soil moisture conditions, from predominantly dry to predominantly wet. This ecological site generally covers the drier of these site conditions, though locally conditions can vary over short distances with microtopography (Buol et al. 2011).

Soils on this ecological site have a seasonal high water table between 12 and 40 inches of the mineral soil surface. The perched water table persists for periods long enough to leave behind redoximorphic features indicative of anaerobic conditions (i.e., iron and manganese depletions). Still, these wet conditions are temporary and in most instances the influence of dry edaphic conditions, which develop over the course of the growing season, are reflected in the character of the vegetation.

Soils on this ecological site have a thermic soil temperature regime, which is characterized by a mean annual soil temperature of 15°C to 22°C and a winter to summer temperature differential of 6°C or more in the subsoil.

Modal soil taxa include: Oxyaquic Vertic Hapludalfs
Modal soil series include: Iredell
Other soils attributed to this ecological site include Brewback, Orange, Pittsboro, Pageland, Sedgefield, Virgilina, Trenholm, Frogsboro, and Crawfordville.

Figure 13. A soil profile of the Iredell series, a representative soil series associated with this ecological site.

Table 5. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Residuum – diabase (2) Residuum – gabbro (3) Residuum – diorite (4) Residuum – amphibolite
Surface texture	(1) Fine sandy loam (2) Loam (3) Sandy loam (4) Silt loam (5) Gravelly sandy loam
Family particle size	(1) Fine (2) Very-fine
Drainage class	Somewhat poorly drained to moderately well drained
Permeability class	Very slow to slow
Depth to restrictive layer	49 – 999 in
Soil depth	49 – 80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-80in)	6 – 12 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	5.1 – 7.3
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	12%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	1%

Table 6. Representative soil features (actual values)

Drainage class	Somewhat poorly drained to moderately well drained
Permeability class	Very slow to moderately slow
Depth to restrictive layer	29 – 999 in
Soil depth	29 – 80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	1%
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-80in)	4 – 14 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	4.5 – 7.3
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	17%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	3%

Ecological dynamics

U.S. National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) associations that are consistent with reference conditions on this ecological site include CEGL003714 Quercus stellata - Quercus marilandica - Carya (carolinae-septentrionalis, glabra) / Schizachyrium scoparium. Under slightly wetter site conditions, CEGL004037 Quercus phellos - Quercus (alba, stellata) - Carya carolinae-septentrionalis may be more representative. In the lower piedmont of Georgia and South Carolina an overlapping association, CEGL008484 Quercus phellos - Quercus (michauxii, shumardii) / (Quercus oglethorpensis) / Zephyranthes atamasca, is representative of the wetter examples there. These concepts are closely related to the reference community, but are likely narrower than the scope of this ecological site (USNVC 2022).

This ecological site is subject to wetting and drying cycles typical of "hydroxeric" conditions. These conditions include seasonal extremes in plant available water, caused primarily by shrink-swell clay minerology and low relief. The shrinking and swelling properties are responsible for fluctuating soil water potentials and cause shearing of the fine roots of woody plants. Layers of dense, plastic clays, which sit below the surface, can behave somewhat like rock, inhibiting root development, perching or ponding water during wet cycles, while simultaneously limiting the infiltration of water, contributing to dry cycles.

These edaphic factors produce a characteristically stunted canopy and create favorable conditions for recurring fires which would have historically helped maintain an open woodland structure. Forest patches associated with this ecological site are usually small and insular, being restricted to areas of mafic geology and unusual edaphic conditions. Nonetheless, these areas are not rare. They are considered a characteristic element of the Piedmont landscape from Virginia to Georgia.

Woodlands of this type are known locally by many names, including Piedmont flatwoods, Iredell flatwoods, montmorillonite forests, basic hardpan woodlands, gabbro upland depression forests, diabase barrens, prairie barrens, and vertic diabase woodlands. In Georgia, the term Monticello glade is applied to a local assemblage which includes some coastal plain elements. Regionally and locally, much variability exists between vegetation communities of this type, but all share a relatively open woodland structure, a fluctuating plant available water dynamic, and a predominance of base-loving plants in the understory.

MATURE FORESTS
The reference state has an open to partially open canopy structure. The canopy is dominated by dry-site oaks, or an unusual mixture of dry-site oaks and bottomland oaks. The understory is characterized by a suite of basic indicator species, including a species-rich herb layer containing species that are seldom seen elsewhere in the Southern Piedmont.

The canopy features stunted dry-site oaks such as post oak (Quercus stellata) and blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), a smaller contribution from hickories (Carya carolinae-septentrionalis, C. glabra, C. tomentosa), and scattered shortleaf pines (Pinus echinata). White oak (Quercus alba) is consistent in the canopy, but is usually a minor species.

On the wetter end of the range of variability, site conditions often support a higher cover of willow oak (Quercus phellos), which may be codominant. Other species that can be important given a slightly longer hydroperiod include cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda) and swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii). These wetter variants generally have a lower cover of blackjack oak (Q. marilandica).

Under reference conditions, the subcanopy layer includes basic indicator species such as such as eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), winged elm (Ulmus alata), white ash (Fraxinus americana), and in the southern half of the MLRA, Carolina buckthorn (Frangula caroliniana). Where fire has been excluded, southern sugar maple (Acer floridanum) can be abundant. Subcanopy generalists include sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and white fringetree (Chionanthus virginicus), among others.

In the shrub layer, characteristic basic indicator species include include downy arrowwood (Viburnum rafinesqueanum), rusty blackhaw (Viburnum rufidulum), coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), and in the southern half of the MLRA, buckthorn bully (Sideroxylon lycioides) or dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor). Fragrant sumac (Rhus aromatica) may also be present, though it is not usually abundant. Generalists include Carolina rose (Rosa carolina), St. Andrew's cross (Hypericum hypericoides ssp. multicaule), and New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus), among others.

Under slightly wetter conditions, species commonly associated with flood plains may be present, including parsley hawthorn (Crataegus marshallii), green hawthorn (Crataegus viridis), possumhaw (Ilex decidua) and common winterberry (Ilex verticillata). These species are rarely found on uplands, except over circumneutral soils weathered from mafic rock.

The herb layer is diverse and distinctive, especially in areas in which fire has been reintroduced. This ecological site is one of the primary habitats for numerous herbaceous species of conservation concern. Many of these species produce seed which can lie in wait in the soil seed bank, and sprout only after fire. Dominant species in the herb layer include poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), blackseed speargrass (Piptochaetium avenaceum), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), and littlehead nutrush (Scleria oligantha). Under slightly wetter conditions, species such as Atamasco lily (Zephyranthes atamasca) and various sedges (Carex spp.) become more important.

DYNAMICS OF NATURAL SUCCESSION AND FIRE ECOLOGY
Beginning in the early 20th century, a widespread fire suppression campaign resulted in a dramatic decrease in the frequency of fires across the Southeast. These changes gradually altered the vegetation structure and species composition of ecosystems that were dependent on fire for seedling recruitment, reproduction, and maintenance.

On this ecological site, the partially open canopy structure seen in some remnant examples is maintained, at least in part, by extremes in plant water availability. Few tree species are tolerant of alternating periods of soil saturation and the extremely dry soil conditions which develop during the growing season. Further, herbaceous plants are more tolerant of shrinking and swelling cycles that lead to shearing of the fine roots. Still, the natural fire regime would have produced a much more open canopy and understory than is seen in most examples presently, and promoted a dense herbaceous layer that could efficiently carry fire in future burns.

Because these communities are predominantly small-patch and spatially insular, fires would have spread primarily from the surrounding landscape. In all likelihood, the fire return interval would have largely matched that of the surrounding forests. However, because of extreme fluctuations in soil moisture, the effects of fire would have been greater, presumably maintaining a more open woodland structure than is seen presently. With a dense grassy herb layer, burning would have been more complete and fire more intense than in the current hardwood litter. Under a more regular fire regime, pyrophytic oaks, pines, and other fire-dependent plant species are more competitive. Under these conditions, tree replacement would presumably be less dependent on canopy gaps and more on fire than under fire-suppressed conditions, or compared to the more prevalent oak-hickory forests of the surrounding landscape.

A combination of prescribed burns and selective removals can open up the understory and constrain the growth of fire-intolerant opportunistic species, thereby restoring the health and vigor of forests that evolved under a more regular fire regime (Dayton 1966; Wharton 1978; Barry 1980; Peet and Christensen 1980; Nelson 1986; Schafale and Weakley 1990; Oakley et al. 1995; Cowell 1998; Spira 2011; Guyette et al. 2012; Schafale 2012a, 2012b; Edwards et al. 2013; Sewell and Zomlefer 2014; Vander Yacht et al. 2020; Fleming et al. 2021; Greenberg et al. 2021; Spooner et al. 2021).

SPECIES LIST
Canopy layer: Quercus stellata, Quercus marilandica, Quercus phellos, Carya carolinae-septentrionalis, Carya glabra, Carya tomentosa, Carya ovata, Carya ovalis, Pinus echinata, Quercus alba, Quercus falcata, Quercus velutina, Quercus nigra, Quercus shumardii, Quercus michauxii, Ulmus alata, Ulmus americana, Gleditsia triacanthos, Pinus taeda,

Subcanopy layer: Juniperus virginiana, Cercis canadensis, Ulmus alata, Fraxinus americana, Cornus florida, Diospyros virginiana, Vaccinium arboreum, Chionanthus virginicus, Liquidambar styraciflua, Acer floridanum, Acer rubrum, Carya spp., Ulmus rubra, Ostrya virginiana, Ilex opaca, Celtis pumila, Celtis occidentalis, Acer leucoderme, Quercus oglethorpensis

Shrub layer: Viburnum rafinesqueanum, Viburnum rufidulum, Viburnum prunifolium, Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, Rosa carolina, Rhus aromatica, Ilex decidua, Ilex verticillata, Crataegus marshallii, Crataegus viridis, Sideroxylon lycioides, Sabal minor, Hypericum hypericoides ssp. multicaule, Hypericum crux-andreae, Hypericum virgatum, Ceanothus americanus, Vaccinium arboreum, Ligustrum sinense (I)

Vines/lianas: Smilax rotundifolia, Smilax bona-nox, Smilax glauca, Matelea decipiens, Matelea carolinensis, Campsis radicans, Toxicodendron radicans, Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Vitis rotundifolia, Cocculus carolinus, Trachelospermum difforme, Berchemia scandens, Bignonia capreolata, Passiflora lutea, Lonicera sempervirens, Loncera japonica (I),

Herb layer - forbs: Zephyranthes atamasca, Scutellaria elliptica, Scutellaria integrifolia, Solidago odora, Nothoscordum bivalve, Eryngium yuccifolium, Clematis ochroleuca, Blephilia ciliata, Tragia urticifolia, Parthenium integrifolium, Oenothera fruticosa, Desmodium paniculatum, Lespedeza virginica, Lespedeza procumbens, Desmodium laevigatum, Coreopsis major, Stylosanthes biflora, Sericocarpus linifolius, Potentilla canadensis, Solidago nemoralis, Hypoxis hirsuta, Erigeron strigosus, Polygonatum biflorum, Asplenium platyneuron, Pleopeltis polypodioides, Ruellia purshiana, Polygala senega, Ophioglossum vulgatum, Marshallia obovata, Elephantopus tomentosus, Hypericum gentianoides, Allium canadense, Climacium americanum, Cardamine bulbosa, Hieracium venosum, Hieracium gronovii, Silphium terebinthinaceum, Heuchera americana, Camassia scilloides, Galium circaezans, Galium pilosum, Conoclinium coelestinum, Antennaria plantaginifolia, Ranunculus hispidus, Physalis virginiana, Anemone caroliniana, Thalictrum dioicum, Manfreda virginica, Phlox spp., Symphyotrichum undulatum, Symphyotrichum dumosum, Oligoneuron rigidum var. rigidum, Oligoneuron album, Agrimonia pubescens, Pycnanthemum tenuifolium, Angelica venenosa, Amsonia tabernaemontana, Allium cernuum, Trifolium reflexum, Listera australis, Triosteum angustifolium,

Herb layer - graminoids: Schizachyrium scoparium, Danthonia spicata, Danthonia sericea, Piptochaetium avenaceum, Scleria oligantha, Sorghastrum nutans, Andropogon ternarius, Andropogon gerardii, Melica mutica, Dichanthelium laxiflorum, Dichanthelium boscii, Carex complanata, Carex caroliniana, Panicum anceps, Paspalum floridanum, Tridens flavus, Sorghastrum elliottii, Panicum capillare, Panicum virgatum, Cyperus echinatus, Poa autumnalis, Muhlenbergia capillaris, Sporobolus junceus, Sphenopholis obtusata, Chasmanthium sessiliflorum, Juncus coriaceus, Carex planispicata, Juncus spp.

(I) = introduced

State and transition model

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T1A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T1B	-	Selective removals of the most valuable timber specimens, leaving inferior trees behind.
T1C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T1D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T2A	-	Long-term natural succession.
T2B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T2C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T2D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T3A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T3C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T3D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T4A	-	Abandonment of forestry practices.
T4B	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T4C	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T5A	-	Long-term cessation of grazing.
T5B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T5C	-	Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T6A	-	Agricultural abandonment.
T6B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T6C	-	Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Basic Hardpan Woodland - Fire Maintained Phase

1.2. Basic Hardpan Forest - Fire Suppressed Phase

1.1A	-	Long-term exclusion of fire.
1.2A	-	Prescribed burns and selective removals.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Old-field Pine-Hardwood Forest Phase

2.2. Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

2.3. Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

2.1A	-	Clearcut logging.
2.2A	-	Natural succession.
2.2B	-	Brush management.
2.3A	-	Natural succession.

State 6 submodel, plant communities

6.1. Conservation-management Cropland Phase

6.2. Conventional-management Cropland Phase

6.1A	-	Conventional tillage is reintroduced.
6.2A	-	Implementation of conservation tillage and other soil conservation practices

State 1
Reference State

This mature forest state is generally dominated by dry-site oaks or an unusual mixture of dry-site oaks and bottomland oaks. Pines are usually interspersed.

Characteristics and indicators. Stands are uneven-aged with at least some old trees present.

Resilience management. Deer population management is critical to sustaining the diversity of herbaceous understory species.

Community 1.1
Basic Hardpan Woodland - Fire Maintained Phase

This is an open canopy mature forest community/phase. Regular low-intensity fires have been reintroduced, keeping the understory open, increasing the cover and diversity of herbaceous species and limiting the importance of fire-intolerant woody species.

Resilience management. This community/phase is maintained through regular prescribed burns. The recruitment of fire-adapted oaks and pines benefits from regular low-intensity ground fires, as these forests evolved under a more regular fire regime. Tree ring data suggests that the mean fire return interval of the past in the Southern Piedmont is approximately 6 years, though the actual return interval varied from 3 to 16 years. To approximate the pre-colonial fire regime, prescribed burns should be carried out every 4 to 8 years.

Forest overstory. The overstory is dominated by oaks. Representative species include post oak (Quercus stellata) and blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica). Other important canopy species include southern shagbark hickory (Carya carolinae-septentrionalis), shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), white oak (Quercus alba), willow oak (Quercus phellos), Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), and winged elm (Ulmus alata).

Forest understory. Representative understory tree species include eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), winged elm (Ulmus alata), white ash (Fraxinus americana), white fringetree (Chionanthus virginicus), and common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana).

Representative understory shrub species include downy arrowwood (Viburnum rafinesqueanum), rusty blackhaw (Viburnum rufidulum), coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), several species of blackberry (Rubus spp.), Carolina rose (Rosa carolina), and New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus). In the southern part of the MLRA, buckthorn bully (Sideroxylon lycioides) and dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor) can be important.

The herb layer is diverse and well developed. It can contain many species of conservation concern.

Dominant plant species

post oak (Quercus stellata), tree
blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), tree
southern shagbark hickory (Carya carolinae-septentrionalis), tree
shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), tree
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
willow oak (Quercus phellos), tree
Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
downy arrowwood (Viburnum rafinesqueanum), shrub
rusty blackhaw (Viburnum rufidulum), shrub
coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
Carolina rose (Rosa carolina), shrub
New Jersey tea (Ceanothus americanus), shrub
maroon Carolina milkvine (Matelea carolinensis), shrub
farkleberry (Vaccinium arboreum), shrub
little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), grass
blackseed speargrass (Piptochaetium avenaceum), grass
littlehead nutrush (Scleria oligantha), grass
poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), grass
downy danthonia (Danthonia sericea), grass
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
bluestem (Andropogon), grass
panicgrass (Panicum), grass
rosette grass (Dichanthelium), grass
hirsute sedge (Carex complanata), grass
Atamasco lily (Zephyranthes atamasca), other herbaceous
hairy skullcap (Scutellaria elliptica), other herbaceous
helmet flower (Scutellaria integrifolia), other herbaceous
anisescented goldenrod (Solidago odora), other herbaceous
crowpoison (Nothoscordum bivalve), other herbaceous
button eryngo (Eryngium yuccifolium), other herbaceous
curlyheads (Clematis ochroleuca), other herbaceous
downy pagoda-plant (Blephilia ciliata), other herbaceous
nettleleaf noseburn (Tragia urticifolia), other herbaceous
wild quinine (Parthenium integrifolium), other herbaceous

Community 1.2
Basic Hardpan Forest - Fire Suppressed Phase

This is a partially open to closed canopy mature forest community/phase. This phase accounts for the majority of contemporary examples. Canopy cover is higher than in stands in which fire has been reintroduced and the herbaceous understory is typically sparser. The pine component can have a greater proportion of loblolly pine and the understory usually contains a greater proportion of fire-intolerant species.

Forest overstory. The overstory is dominated by oaks. Representative species include post oak (Quercus stellata), blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), and willow oak (Quercus phellos). Other important canopy species include southern shagbark hickory (Carya carolinae-septentrionalis), shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), white oak (Quercus alba), Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), and winged elm (Ulmus alata).

Forest understory. Representative understory tree species include eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), white ash (Fraxinus americana), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), southern sugar maple (Acer floridanum), red maple (Acer rubrum), American holly (Ilex opaca), Ostrya virginiana (hophornbeam), and common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana).

Representative understory shrub species include downy arrowwood (Viburnum rafinesqueanum), rusty blackhaw (Viburnum rufidulum), and coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), along with several vines. In the southern part of the MLRA, buckthorn bully (Sideroxylon lycioides) and dwarf palmetto (Sabal minor) can be important.

The herb layer is sparser, less diverse, and less grassy than in the fire maintained phase.

Dominant plant species

post oak (Quercus stellata), tree
blackjack oak (Quercus marilandica), tree
willow oak (Quercus phellos), tree
southern shagbark hickory (Carya carolinae-septentrionalis), tree
shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
southern sugar maple (Acer floridanum), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
downy arrowwood (Viburnum rafinesqueanum), shrub
rusty blackhaw (Viburnum rufidulum), shrub
coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
maroon Carolina milkvine (Matelea carolinensis), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
farkleberry (Vaccinium arboreum), shrub
rosette grass (Dichanthelium), grass
poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), grass
downy danthonia (Danthonia sericea), grass
hirsute sedge (Carex complanata), grass
Carolina sedge (Carex caroliniana), grass
Atamasco lily (Zephyranthes atamasca), other herbaceous
crowpoison (Nothoscordum bivalve), other herbaceous
ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), other herbaceous
American climacium moss (Climacium americanum), other herbaceous

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Long-term exclusion of fire causes an increase in fire-intolerant understory species and a deterioration of the abundance and diversity of herbaceous species.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

The fire suppressed phase can be managed towards the fire maintained phase through a combination of prescribed burns and selective removals. To approximate the pre-colonial fire regime, prescribed burns should be carried out every 4 to 8 years.

Context dependence. After decades of fire suppression, most upland hardwood forests of the Southeast have undergone mesophication, or succession toward forest systems that are less apt to burn. If prescribed fire is to be used as a management tool in fire suppressed ecosystems of the Piedmont, planning will be needed in some forest systems to overcome the effects of mesophication in the early stages of fire reintroduction.

State 2
Secondary Succession State

This state develops in the immediate aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Which species colonize a particular location in the wake of a disturbance does involve a considerable degree of chance. It also depends a great deal on the type, duration, and magnitude of the disturbance event.

Characteristics and indicators. Plant age distribution is even. Plants exhibit pioneering traits such as rapid growth, early reproduction, and shade-intolerance.

Community 2.1
Old-field Pine-Hardwood Forest Phase

This forested successional phase develops in the wake of long-term agricultural abandonment or other large-scale disturbances that have led to canopy removal in the recent past. Stands are even-aged and species diversity is low. The canopy is usually dominated by pines, though opportunistic hardwoods can also be important, particularly in the early stages of tree establishment. Species that exhibit pioneering traits are usually most abundant.

Forest overstory. The overstory is dominated by pines. Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) is the most characteristic species, followed by shortleaf pine (P. echinata).

Forest understory. Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is the most representative understory tree species, though its importance tends to decline as the pines mature. Other common species include eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), red maple (Acer rubrum), white ash (Fraxinus americana), and sassafras (Sassafras albidum). Seedlings of oaks and hickories are usually present in the understory. These seedlings are released gradually as the forest matures and the pines begin to die off.

Dominant plant species

loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
hybrid hickory (Carya), tree
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
littlehead nutrush (Scleria oligantha), grass
rosette grass (Dichanthelium), grass
ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), other herbaceous
wild garlic (Allium vineale), other herbaceous
sparselobe grapefern (Botrychium biternatum), other herbaceous

Community 2.2
Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

This successional phase is dominated by shrubs and vines, along with seedlings of opportunistic hardwoods and pines. It typically develops beginning in the third year after agricultural abandonment or clearcut logging. It grades into the forested successional phase as tree seedlings become saplings and begin to occupy more of the canopy cover.

Forest overstory. Species composition varies considerably from location to location.

Dominant plant species

sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
black cherry (Prunus serotina), tree
honeylocust (Gleditsia triacanthos), tree
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
winged sumac (Rhus copallinum), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
grape (Vitis), shrub
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), shrub
coralberry (Symphoricarpos orbiculatus), shrub
velvet panicum (Dichanthelium scoparium), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
aster (Symphyotrichum), other herbaceous
sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata), other herbaceous
Indianhemp (Apocynum cannabinum), other herbaceous

Community 2.3
Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

This transient community is composed of the first herbaceous invaders in the aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale natural disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Species composition is highly variable at this stage of succession. In addition to the named species, other herbaceous pioneers common to this ecological site include Virginia threeseed mercury (Acalypha virginica), Indianhemp (Apocynum cannabinum), evening primrose (Oenothera spp.), great ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), Canada toadflax (Nuttallanthus canadensis), curly dock (Rumex crispus), dwarf cinquefoil (Potentilla canadensis), hairy cat's ear (Hypochaeris radicata), several species of thoroughwort (Eupatorium spp.), and many others.

Resilience management. If the user wishes to maintain this community/phase for wildlife or pollinator habitat, a prescribed burn, mowing, or prescribed grazing will be needed at least once annually to prevent community pathway 2.3A. To that end, as part of long-term maintenance, periodic overseeding of wildlife or pollinator seed mixtures can be helpful in ensuring the viability of certain desired species and maintaining the desired composition of species for user goals.

Dominant plant species

greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), grass
southern crabgrass (Digitaria ciliaris), grass
smooth crabgrass (Digitaria ischaemum), grass
velvet panicum (Dichanthelium scoparium), grass
annual bluegrass (Poa annua), grass
annual ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
American burnweed (Erechtites hieraciifolius), other herbaceous
American pokeweed (Phytolacca americana), other herbaceous
Canadian horseweed (Conyza canadensis), other herbaceous
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), other herbaceous
aster (Symphyotrichum), other herbaceous
fleabane (Erigeron), other herbaceous
cudweed (Pseudognaphalium), other herbaceous

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.3

The old-field pine-hardwood forest phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

The shrub-dominated successional phase naturally moves towards the old-field pine-hardwood forest through natural succession.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3

The shrub-dominated successional phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through brush management, including herbicide application, mechanical removal, prescribed grazing, or fire.

Context dependence. Note: if the user wishes to use this community pathway to create wildlife or pollinator habitat, please contact a local NRCS office for a species list specific to the area of interest and user needs. If the user wishes to maintain the shrub-dominated successional phase long term, for wildlife habitat or other uses, periodic use of this community pathway is necessary to prevent community pathway 2.2A, which happens inevitably unless natural succession is set back through disturbance.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2

The herbaceous early successional phase naturally moves towards the shrub-dominated successional phase through natural succession. The process takes approximately 3 years on average, barring any major disturbances capable of inhibiting natural succession.

State 3
High-graded Hardwood Forest State

This state develops as a consequence of high-grading, where the most valuable trees are removed, leaving less desirable timber specimens behind. Trees left behind include undesirable timber species, trees of poor form, diseased trees, or genetically inferior trees.

Characteristics and indicators. Typically, high-graded stands consist of a combination of residual stems from the previous stand, a high proportion of undesirable shade-tolerant species, along with some regrowth from desirable timber species. In some cases, large-diameter trees of desirable timber species may be present, but upon closer inspection, these trees usually have serious defects that resulted in their being left behind in earlier cuts.

Resilience management. Landowners with high-graded stands have two options for improving timber production: 1) rehabilitate, or 2) regenerate. To rehabilitate a stand, the landowner must evaluate existing trees to determine if rehabilitation is justified. If the proportion of high-quality specimens present in the stand is low, then the stand should be regenerated. In many cases, poor quality of the existing stand is the result of decades of mismanagement. Drastic measures are often required to get the stand back into good timber production.

Dominant plant species

elm (Ulmus), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), tree
maple (Acer), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
hybrid hickory (Carya), tree
pine (Pinus), tree

State 4
Managed Pine Plantation State

This converted state is dominated by planted timber trees. Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) is the most commonly planted species. Even-aged management is the most common timber management system. Note: if the user wishes to convert stands dominated by hardwoods to planted pine, clearcutting will usually be necessary first, allowing herbaceous pioneers to establish on the site in the weeks or months prior to planting. Users should utilize measures described in transition T2B under these circumstances.

Resilience management. Hardwood Encroachment: Hardwood encroachment can be problematic in managed pine plantations. Good site preparation, proper stocking, and periodic thinning are advisable to reduce hardwood competition. Overstocking: The overstocked condition commonly occurs in naturally regenerated stands. When competition from other pines begins to impact the health and productivity of the stand, precommercial thinning should be considered. At this point, the benefit of thinning usually outweighs the potential for invasion and competition from non-pine species. As the target window for thinning passes, the condition of the stand can slowly deteriorate if no action is taken. Under long-term overstocked conditions, trees are more prone to stresses, including pine bark beetle infestation and damage from wind or ice. High-grading: In subsequent commercial thinnings, care should be taken in tree selection. High quality specimens should be left to reach maturity, while slower growing trees or those with defects should be removed sooner. If high quality specimens are harvested first, trees left behind are often structurally unsound, diseased, genetically inferior, or of poor form. This can have long-term implications for tree genetics and for the condition of the stand (Felix III 1983; Miller et al. 1995, 2003; Megalos 2019).

Dominant plant species

loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), tree
eastern redbud (Cercis canadensis), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
sassafras (Sassafras albidum), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
hybrid hickory (Carya), tree
grape (Vitis), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
St. Johnswort (Hypericum), shrub
blueberry (Vaccinium), shrub
rosette grass (Dichanthelium), grass
littlehead nutrush (Scleria oligantha), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
silver plumegrass (Saccharum alopecuroides), grass
sortbeard plumegrass (Saccharum brevibarbe var. contortum), grass
ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), other herbaceous
sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata), other herbaceous
aster (Symphyotrichum), other herbaceous
thoroughwort (Eupatorium), other herbaceous
dwarf cinquefoil (Potentilla canadensis), other herbaceous

State 5
Pasture/Hayland State

Figure 14. Beaked panicgrass-Tall fescue pasture on Iredell loam, 2 to 6 percent slopes, June.

This converted state is dominated by herbaceous forage species.

Resilience management. Overgrazing and High Foot Traffic: In areas that are subject to high foot traffic from livestock and equipment, and/or long-term overgrazing, unpalatable weedy species tend to invade, as most desirable forage species are less competitive under these conditions. High risk areas include locations where livestock congregate for water, shade, or feed, and in travel lanes, gates, and other areas of heavy use. Plant species that are indicative of overgrazing or excessive foot traffic on this ecological site include buttercup (Ranunculus spp.), plantain (Plantago spp.), curly dock (Rumex crispus), sneezeweed (Helenium amarum), cudweed (Pseudognaphalium spp.), slender yellow woodsorrel (Oxalis dillenii), Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), Virginia pepperweed (Lepidium virginicum), black medick (Medicago lupulina), Japanese clover (Kummerowia striata), annual bluegrass (Poa annua), poverty rush (Juncus tenuis), rattail fescue (Vulpia myuros), and Indian goosegrass (Eleusine indica), among others. A handful of desirable forage species are also tolerant of heavy grazing and high foot traffic, including white clover (Trifolium repens), dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum), and bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon). An overabundance of these species, along with poor plant vigor and areas of bare soil, may imply that excessive foot traffic and/or overgrazing is a concern, either in the present or in the recent past. Brush Encroachment: Brush encroachment can be problematic in some pastures, particularly near fence lines where there is often a ready seed source. Pastures subject to low stocking density and long-duration grazing rotations can also be susceptible to encroachment from woody plants. Shorter grazing rotations of higher stocking density can help alleviate pressure from shrubs and vines with low palatability or thorny stems. Clipping behind grazing rotations, annual brush hogging, and multispecies grazing systems (cattle with or followed by goats) can also be helpful. Common woody invaders of pasture on this ecological site include rose (Rosa spp.), blackberry (Rubus spp.), saw greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox), Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), and black cherry (Prunus serotina).

Dominant plant species

tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), grass
dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum), grass
beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), grass
Indiangrass (Sorghastrum nutans), grass
hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), grass
purpletop tridens (Tridens flavus), grass
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), grass
bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
white clover (Trifolium repens), other herbaceous
red clover (Trifolium pratense), other herbaceous
vetch (Vicia), other herbaceous
narrowleaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
black medick (Medicago lupulina), other herbaceous
field clover (Trifolium campestre), other herbaceous
common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), other herbaceous
wild garlic (Allium vineale), other herbaceous

State 6
Cropland State

This converted state produces food or fiber for human uses. It is dominated by domesticated crop species, along with typical weedy invaders of cropland.

Community 6.1
Conservation-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the practice of no-tillage or strip-tillage, and other soil conservation practices. Though no-till systems offer many benefits, several weedy species tend to be more problematic under this type of management system. In contrast with conventional tillage systems, problematic species in no-till systems include biennial or perennial weeds, owing to the fact that tillage is no longer used in weed management.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous

Community 6.2
Conventional-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the recurrent use of tillage as a management tool. Due to the frequent disturbance regime, weedy invaders tend to be annual herbaceous species that reproduce quickly and are prolific seed producers.

Resilience management. The potential for soil loss is high under this management system. Measures should be put in place to limit erosion.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous

Pathway 6.1A
Community 6.1 to 6.2

The conservation-management cropland phase can shift to the conventional-management cropland phase through cessation of conservation tillage practices and the reintroduction of conventional tillage practices.

Context dependence. Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after reintroduction of conventional tillage practices. These changes continue to manifest as conventional tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Pathway 6.2A
Community 6.2 to 6.1

The conventional-management cropland phase can be brought into the conservation-management cropland phase through the implementation of one of several conservation tillage options, including no-tillage or strip-tillage, along with implementation of other soil conservation practices.

Context dependence. Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after implementation of conservation tillage. These changes continue to manifest as conservation tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

The reference state can transition to the secondary succession state through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The reference state can transition to the high-graded hardwood forest state through selective removal of the most valuable trees, leaving undesirable timber specimens behind. This may occur through multiple cutting cycles over the course of decades or longer, each cut progressively worsening the condition of the stand.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

The reference state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. Herbicide applications, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 6

The reference state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 1

The secondary succession state can transition to the reference state through long-term natural succession. This process can be accelerated to some degree by a combination of prescribed burns and selective harvesting of pines and opportunistic hardwoods.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

The secondary succession state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and planting of timber trees. Thinning alone may be sufficient for portions of the forest if pines have already established, though it is rarely sufficient for an entire forest patch.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 5

The secondary succession state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning wooded or semi-wooded land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T2D
State 2 to 6

The secondary succession state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, 4) weed control, 5) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking may be needed to successfully transition land that has been fallow for some time back to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

The high-graded hardwood forest state can transition to the secondary succession state through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Transition T3C
State 3 to 5

The high-graded hardwood forest state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Transition T3D
State 3 to 6

The high-graded hardwood forest state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, 4) weed control, 5) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the secondary succession state through abandonment of forestry practices (with or without timber tree harvest).

Transition T4B
State 4 to 5

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) timber harvest, 2) mechanical stump and debris removal, 3) seedbed preparation, 4) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. Applications of fertilizer and lime can be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T4C
State 4 to 6

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the cropland state through 1) timber harvest, 2) mechanical stump and debris removal, 3) seedbed preparation, 4) applications of fertilizer/lime, 5) weed control, 6) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 2

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the secondary succession state through long-term cessation of grazing.

Transition T5B
State 5 to 4

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and tree planting.

Transition T5C
State 5 to 6

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the cropland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) applications of fertilizer/lime, 3) weed control, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 2

The cropland state can transition to the secondary succession state through agricultural abandonment.

Transition T6B
State 6 to 4

The cropland state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and tree planting.

Transition T6C
State 6 to 5

The cropland state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) weed control, and 3) planting of perennial forage grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. To convert cropland to pasture or hayland, weed control and good seed-soil contact are important. It is also critical to review the labels of herbicides used for weed control and on the previous crop. Many herbicides have plant-back restrictions, which if not followed could carryover and kill forage seedlings as they germinate. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Additional community tables

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Data collection and analysis of field data will be performed during the Verification Stage of ESD development.

Other references

Barry, J.M. 1980. Part Three: Piedmont Province. p. 55 – 94. In J.M. Barry (ed.) Natural Vegetation of South Carolina. University of South Carolina Press. Columbia, SC.

Billings, W.D. 1938. The structure and development of old field shortleaf pine stands and certain associated physical properties of the soil. Ecological Monographs. 8(3):437-499.

Buol, S.W., R.J Southard,., R.C. Graham., McDaniel, P.A. 2011. Soil Genesis and Classification. Sixth edition. John Wiley and Sons. Oxford, UK.

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C.A. Carpenter, W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections for the conterminous United States. General Technical Report WO-76D. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Washington, D.C.

Cowell, C.M. 1998. Historical Change in Vegetation and Disturbance on the Georgia Piedmont. The American Midland Naturalist. 140(1):78-89.

Daniels, R.B., S.W. Boul, H.J. Kleiss, C.A. Ditzler. 1999. Soil Systems in North Carolina. Technical Bulletin 314. North Carolina State University, Soil Science Department. Raleigh, N.C.

Daniels, R.B. 1987. Soil Erosion and Degradation in the Southern Piedmont of the USA. In: M.G. Wolman, F.G.A. Fournier (eds.) Land Transformation in Agriculture. John Wiley and Sons. New York, NY.

Dayton, B.R. 1966. The relationship of vegetation to Iredell and other Piedmont soils in Granville County, North Carolina. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Science Societ.y 82(2):108-118.

Dearman, T.L., L.A. James. 2019. Patterns of legacy sediment deposits in a small South Carolina Piedmont catchment, USA. Geomorphology. 343(15):1-14.

Edwards, L., J., Ambrose, and L.K. Kirkman. 2013. Piedmont Ecoregion. In L. Edwards et al. (ed.) The natural communities of Georgia. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA. 257-345.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2013. Level III and IV ecoregions of the continental
United States. National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory. Corvallis, Oregon. Map scale 1:3,000,000.

Felix III, A.C., T.L. Sharik, B.S. McGinnes, W.C. Johnson. 1983. Succession in loblolly pine plantations converted from second-growth forest in the Central Piedmont of Virginia.

Fenneman, N.M., Johnson D.W. 1946. Physiographic Divisions of the Conterminous U.S. U.S. Geological Survey. Washington, DC.

Fleming, G. P., K. D. Patterson, and K. Taverna. 2021. The natural communities of Virginia: A classification of ecological community groups and community types. Third approximation. Version 3.3. Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of Natural Heritage, Richmond, VA. [http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural-heritage/natural-communities/]

Greenberg, C.H., B.S. Collins, S. Goodrick, M.C. Stambaugh, G.R. Wein. 2021. Introduction to Fire Ecology Across USA Forested Ecosystems: Past, Present, and Future. P. 1-30. In C.H. Greenberg and B. Collins (ed.) Fire ecology and management: past, present, and future of US forested ecosystems, Volume 39. Springer International Publishing. Cham, Switzerland.

Griffith, G.E., J.M. Omernik, J.A. Comstock, M.P. Schafale, W.H. McNab, D.R. Lenat, T.F. MacPherson, J.B. Glover, V.B. Shelburne. 2002. Ecoregions of North Carolina and South Carolina. United States Geological Survey. Reston, Virginia.

Guyette, R.P., M.C. Stambaugh, D.C. Dey, R.M. Muzika. 2012. Predicting fire frequency with chemistry and climate. Ecosystems. 15:322-335.

Keever, C. 1950. Causes of succession on old fields of the Piedmont, North Carolina. Ecological Monographs. 20(3):229-250.

Megalos, M. 2019. Thinning Pine Stands. Woodland Owners Notes. NC State Extension. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/thinning-pine-stands (accessed 18 March 2023).

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Miller, J.H., B.R. Zutter, R.A. Newbold, M.B. Edwards, S.M. Zedaker. 2003. Stand dynamics and plant associates of loblolly pine plantations to midrotation after early intensive vegetation management – a southeastern United States regional study. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 27(4):221-236.

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Contributors

Yogev Erez
Dee Pederson

Approval

Charles Stemmans, 5/02/2025

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	05/02/2025
Approved by	Charles Stemmans
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Presence of water flow patterns:
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:

Sub-dominant:

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Perennial plant reproductive capability:

Download reference sheet

Click on box and path labels to scroll to the respective text.

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Secondary Succession State

3. High-graded Hardwood Forest State

4. Managed Pine Plantation State

5. Pasture/Hayland State

6. Cropland State

States 1, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)

1. Reference State

5. Pasture/Hayland State

6. Cropland State

States 2, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)

2. Secondary Succession State

5. Pasture/Hayland State

6. Cropland State

T1A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T1B	-	Selective removals of the most valuable timber specimens, leaving inferior trees behind.
T1C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T1D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T2A	-	Long-term natural succession.
T2B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T2C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T2D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T3A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T3C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T3D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T4A	-	Abandonment of forestry practices.
T4B	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T4C	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T5A	-	Long-term cessation of grazing.
T5B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T5C	-	Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T6A	-	Agricultural abandonment.
T6B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T6C	-	Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.