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Ecological site PX136X00X810

Acidic Upland Forest, Seasonally Wet

Last updated: 5/02/2025
Accessed: 05/19/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 136X–Southern Piedmont

This MLRA is on a large piedmont underlain by metamorphic and igneous bedrock. It stretches from north-central Virginia to east-central Alabama, running parallel to the Appalachian highlands to the northwest and the Atlantic coast to the southeast.

MLRA 136 has only subtle climatic differences with MLRA 148 (Northern Piedmont), with which it shares a common geologic origin. This adjacent MLRA sits to the north. Along the fall line, it shares a boundary with MLRA 133A (Southern Coastal Plain), MLRA 137 (Carolina and Georgia Sand Hills), and 133C (Gulf Coastal Plain). Here, unconsolidated Coastal Plain sediments intersect the much older Piedmont bedrock. Along it's northwestern boundary, it sits adjacent to MLRAs 130B (Southern Blue Ridge), 130A (Northern Blue Ridge), and 128 (Southern Appalachian Ridges and Valleys). These MLRAs are distinguished from the Southern Piedmont by topographic and elevational differences, as well as differences in the age, origin, and degree of metamorphism of the underlying bedrock.

Five states are intersected by the MLRA, including North Carolina (29 percent), Georgia (27 percent), Virginia (20 percent), South Carolina (17 percent), and Alabama (7 percent). The MLRA extent makes up about 63,720 square miles (165,034 square kilometers).

MLRA PHYSIOGRAPHY
The landscape is generally rolling to hilly, with a well-defined drainage pattern. Streams have dissected the original Piedmont plateau, forming narrow ridgetops, somewhat broad interfluves, and short, steep side slopes adjacent to the streams and drainageways. With some exceptions, the valley floors are generally narrow and make up about 10 percent or less of the land area. The associated stream terraces are generally small and of minor extent.

The landscape is moderately dissected overall, with isolated erosional remnants (monadnocks) and other areas of high topographic relief interspersed. Over most of the MLRA, elevation ranges from approximately 325 to 1,315 feet (100 to 400 meters), with elevations generally increasing toward the Appalachian Highlands, in the upper Piedmont, and decreasing toward the Coastal Plain, in the lower Piedmont.

The major rivers that cross this area en route to the ocean include, from north to south, the James, Roanoke, Cape Fear, Savannah, Altamaha, Chattahoochee, and Alabama Rivers. These rivers typically originate within the Piedmont or in the Blue Ridge. They flow east and south across the Coastal Plain and empty into the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of America.

MLRA GEOLOGY
Precambrian and Paleozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks underlie almost all of this MLRA. The dominant metamorphic rock types include gneiss, schist, slate, argillite, and phyllite, among others. Dominant igneous rock types include granite and other related felsic crystalline rocks. Mafic intrusive rocks, including gabbro, diabase, amphibolite, and other dark colored rocks, underlie a minority of the upland landscape. These mafic intrusions crop out in the form of dikes and sills, and often weather to produce soils high in base cations.

The Carolina Slate Belt runs lengthwise through the east-central part of the MLRA, in southern Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and the eastern-most part of the Georgia Piedmont. This region is underlain by fine-grained metasedimentary and metavolcanic rock, which generally weathers to produce soils high in silt.

From Virginia to North Carolina, and in a single county in South Carolina, fault-bounded Triassic Basins are scattered amongst the igneous and metamorphic uplands. These basins are underlain by Triassic and Jurassic siltstone, shale, sandstone, and mudstone, which were laid down in response to continental rifting and subsequent erosion during the Mesozoic era.

MLRA SOILS
The dominant soil orders of the MLRA are Ultisols, Inceptisols, and Alfisols. Ultisols and Alfisols are typically found on more stable landforms, such as interfluves, gentle hillslopes, broad ridgetops, and stream terraces, while Inceptisols are typically found on less stable landforms, including flood plains, steep hillslopes, and narrow ridgetops.

Soils of the region predominantly have a thermic temperature regime, a udic moisture regime, and generally have kaolinitic or mixed mineralogy. In the upper Piedmont of Virginia and North Carolina however, soils have a mesic soil temperature regime, as depicted in figure 2. The mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA is oriented from northeast to southwest and occupies approximately 18 percent of the MLRA extent, or 11,729 square miles (30,377 square kilometers).

Broadly speaking, soils of the Southern Piedmont uplands are shallow to very deep, well drained, and loamy or clayey. Soils of the river valleys are generally very deep, well to poorly drained, and loamy. Soils tend to be finer-textured than in Coastal Plain regions.

MLRA CLIMATE
In general, precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year in this MLRA, with occasional drought-like conditions extending from late summer into autumn. During the growing season, most of the rainfall comes from high-intensity, convective thunderstorms. Significant moisture also comes from the movement of warm and cold fronts across the MLRA from November to April. High amounts of rain can also occur during hurricanes, usually during the months of August through October.

Over most of the MLRA, snowfall is typically light, though overall, the mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA features colder temperatures, more snowfall, and a shorter growing season than in the thermic portion. The cooler climate in this region supports an increase in species with northern or Blue Ridge affinities. Both the mean annual temperature and the length of the freeze-free period increase from north to south and with decreasing elevation from the upper to the lower Piedmont.

MLRA LAND USE AND RESOURCES
Once largely cultivated, much of this region is now planted to loblolly pine or has reverted to successional pine and hardwood forests. The more productive lands support small to medium-size family farms that produce crops and livestock, while the less productive lands have been in forest for some time. Most of the open areas are used for grazing beef cattle, though in years past, dairy cattle were also important to the local economy. The principal crops of the region include corn, soybeans, and small grains. Burley tobacco remains a crop of local importance. Cotton is grown in the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA.

Several major land cover transformations have occurred in the Southern Piedmont over the past several centuries; from open woodlands sculpted by fire, to farmland, to closed forests and planted pine, past land uses have played an outsized role in shaping present-day soils and vegetation patterns in the region. Land-use intensity peaked with the arrival of the industrial revolution, which gradually increased demand for textiles. Cotton became the dominant crop over much of the region.

In spite of early successes, two centuries of poor management practices accelerated soil erosion, stripping away the fertility and moisture-supplying capacity of soils. In addition to soil losses in the uplands, legacy sediments derived from the eroded land rapidly accumulated in the river valleys below, often leading to changes in hydrology and flooding frequency.

After being stripped of it's loamy topsoil, many areas of the Piedmont had been so badly eroded as to render the land unsuitable or economically impractical for agriculture. The effects of erosion were widespread, with cumulative soil loss estimates ranging from 5 to 10 inches on average. The steeper slopes, which had often been cleared and farmed at the height of the Cotton era, generally suffered greater losses. By the 1930's, crop production was in rapid decline in the Southern Piedmont. The loss of soil productivity due to erosion, losses to the cotton boll weevil, development of synthetic fibers, and the onset of the Great Depression all contributed to rapid abandonment of cropland. By 1960, cropland acres had decreased by more than 50 percent in nearly every county in the Southern Piedmont.

While crop production is still important today on the more productive lands, those of lower productivity, or those that were subject to severe erosion, were often abandoned some time ago. Typically, they have either reverted to forest, or have been converted to other uses. Although the productivity of soils was greatly reduced through erosion, less intensive land uses such as grazing and forestry were still feasible. These land uses gained popularity as patterns of urban migration, low commodity prices, and other factors gradually made crop production less economical on the marginal lands.

In recent years, large-scale adoption of soil conservation practices have led to better outcomes with respect to erosion in much of MLRA, increasing the economic viability and long-term sustainability of Piedmont farms. Despite some success, water erosion remains one of the most important soil resource concerns in the MLRA.

Other major resource concerns include increasing conversion of prime farmland and farmland of statewide importance to urban uses. Throughout the MLRA, metropolitan areas are expanding into lands that have historically been used for timber or agriculture. This change in land use is occurring rapidly in the corridor called the Piedmont Crescent, which extends from Atlanta, Georgia, to Raleigh, North Carolina.

HISTORIC VEGETATION COVER
Over most of the Southern Piedmont uplands, the historic oak-hickory, or oak-hickory-pine forest, once covered large portions of the landscape. It was dominated by upland oaks, such as white oak (Quercus alba), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and southern red oak (Quercus falcata), with a smaller contribution from hickories (Carya spp.) and pines. The principal pine species are shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), and to the north and west, Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana). In the southernmost and easternmost portions of the MLRA, the historic montane longleaf pine forest, dominated by longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), shortleaf pine (P. echinata), and dry-site oaks, was found on ridgetops and steep south or west-facing slopes.

According to historic accounts, forests and woodlands of the past were generally more open and park-like, having been exposed to a more frequent fire regime. Piedmont prairies, likely maintained by Native Americans, were also reportedly common across the landscape, as were fire-maintained canebrakes along the streams (Trimble 1974; Daniels 1987; Griffith et al. 2002; Van Lear et al. 2004; Dearman and James 2019; Schomberg et al. 2020; USDA-NRCS 2022).

LRU notes

MLRA 136 is one of the largest MLRAs in the United States. It has a broad north-south and east-west extent and covers a wide range of elevations. The MLRA is partitioned by the mesic-thermic line, which divides the MLRA into mesic and thermic soil temperature regimes (figure 2.). The mesic soil temperature regime was delineated based on estimates of the native range of loblolly pine, which was historically absent in this part of the MLRA. In addition, this region is said to represent the northern and western limits of cotton production, an important crop to the south and east.

ESDs developed for this MLRA were split geographically into mesic and thermic ecological site concepts. Climate variation across the MLRA extent warrants the development of Land Resource Unit (LRU) classifications, to further subdivide the MLRA and support more precise Ecological Site Descriptions.

Classification relationships

APPLICABLE USNVC ASSOCIATIONS
CEGL007237 Quercus rubra - Quercus alba - Carya glabra / Geranium maculatum. On north-facing or sheltered lower slopes; CEGL008465 Fagus grandifolia - Quercus rubra / Cornus florida / Polystichum acrostichoides - Hexastylis virginica

APPLICABLE EPA ECOREGIONS
Level III: 45. Piedmont
Level IV: 45a. Southern Inner Piedmont; 45b. Southern Outer Piedmont; 45c. Carolina Slate Belt; 45f. Northern Outer Piedmont; 45g. Triassic Basins; 45i. Kings Mountain; 45d. Talladega Upland; 45h. Pine Mountain Ridges (EPA 2013).

APPLICABLE USFS ECOLOGICAL UNITS
Domain: Humid Temperate
Division: Subtropical
Ecological province: 231. Southeastern Mixed Forest
Ecological sections: 231I.Central Appalachian Piedmont; 231A. Southern Appalachian Piedmont (Cleland et al. 2007).

Based on the USGS physiographic classification system (Fenneman and Johnson 1946), most of MLRA 136 is in the Piedmont Upland section of the Piedmont province, in the Appalachian Highlands division.

Ecological site concept

This ecological site includes seasonally wet acidic uplands on broad interfluves, gentle hillslopes, flats, and at the heads of drainageways in the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA. On hillslopes it is typically found downslope from drier acidic uplands, generally represented by ecological sites PX136X00X820 or PX136X00X830.

Soils on this ecological site are typically deep to very deep, somewhat poorly to moderately well drained Ultisols. A transient water table is present within 12 to 40 inches of the soil surface during the cooler months. Soils formed in residuum derived from acidic igneous or metamorphic rock, or highly weathered mixed mafic and felsic rock. On footslopes and at the heads of drainageways, the residual material may be overlain by a thin mantle of colluvium or slope alluvium washed from higher areas. Base saturation is less than 35 percent in the subsoil.

The reference state supports a closed to somewhat open canopy oak-hickory forest dominated by white oak (Quercus alba) and northern red oak (Quercus rubra). Bottomland oaks, such as willow oak (Quercus phellos) and water oak (Quercus nigra) usually occupy some portion of the canopy or understory. Dominant land uses include cropland, pasture and hayland, planted pine, and wildlife habitat. Soils are not well-suited to most building applications or septic system installations due to seasonal wetness.

ES CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARY
• Thermic soil temperature regime
• Occurs on Piedmont uplands, on broad interfluves, gentle hillslopes, flats, and around the heads of drainageways
• Base saturation < 35 percent in the subsoil
• Seasonal high water table: perched, 12 - 40 inches from the soil surface
• Depth to bedrock: ≥ 40 inches
• The available water storage capacity of the profile (from the soil surface to 80 inches, or to paralithic or lithic bedrock, whichever is shallower) is greater than or equal to 6 inches
• Soils: deep to very deep, somewhat poorly to moderately well drained Ultisols

Associated sites

PX136X00X820	Acidic Upland Forest, Moist Generally found in slightly higher landscape positions. The seasonal high water table is deeper (≥ 40 inches from the soil surface, usually deeper), supporting a relative decrease in obligate or facultative wetland indicator species.
PX136X00X800	Acidic Upland Depressions and Heads of Drains, Wet Typically in slightly lower and wetter landscape positions. The seasonal high water table is shallower (0-12 inches from the soil surface), supporting a greater proportion of obligate or facultative wetland indicator species.

PX136X00X820

Acidic Upland Forest, Moist

Generally found in slightly higher landscape positions. The seasonal high water table is deeper (≥ 40 inches from the soil surface, usually deeper), supporting a relative decrease in obligate or facultative wetland indicator species.

PX136X00X800

Acidic Upland Depressions and Heads of Drains, Wet

Typically in slightly lower and wetter landscape positions. The seasonal high water table is shallower (0-12 inches from the soil surface), supporting a greater proportion of obligate or facultative wetland indicator species.

Similar sites

PX136X00X310	Mesic Temperature Regime, Acidic Upland Forest, Seasonally Wet The soil temperature regime is mesic, occurring outside of the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).
PX136X00X410	Triassic Basin Upland Forest, Seasonally Wet Parent materials are Triassic sedimentary rock. It is geographically restricted to the Triassic Basins, in the northern part of the MLRA. Soil properties are similar, though compared to the surrounding igneous and metamorphic uplands, the landscape typically exhibits an overall decrease in elevation and topographic relief, representing some of the lowest elevations and the flattest topography in the MLRA.

PX136X00X310

Mesic Temperature Regime, Acidic Upland Forest, Seasonally Wet

The soil temperature regime is mesic, occurring outside of the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).

PX136X00X410

Triassic Basin Upland Forest, Seasonally Wet

Parent materials are Triassic sedimentary rock. It is geographically restricted to the Triassic Basins, in the northern part of the MLRA. Soil properties are similar, though compared to the surrounding igneous and metamorphic uplands, the landscape typically exhibits an overall decrease in elevation and topographic relief, representing some of the lowest elevations and the flattest topography in the MLRA.

Figure 1. EPA level IV ecoregions of the Southern Piedmont (45).

Figure 2. Spatial illustration of soil temperature regimes of the Southern Piedmont.

Figure 3. Spatial extent of this ecological site representing the major areas where this site is important on the landscape.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Quercus alba (2) Quercus rubra
Shrub	(1) Cornus florida (2) Ilex opaca
Herbaceous	(1) Polystichum acrostichoides (2) Hexastylis arifolia

Legacy ID

F136XY810SC

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Physiographic features

This ecological site is found on acidic uplands on broad interfluves, gentle hillslopes, flats, and at the heads of drainageways, in the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA. On hillslopes it is typically found downslope from drier acidic uplands. Representative locations are gently sloping, with a representative slope of 2 to 8 percent and a maximum slope of 15 percent.

This ecological site has a widespread extent, being found throughout the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the Piedmont. It can be found in virtually every ecoregion in this portion of the MLRA, but is more common in low to moderately dissected parts of the Piedmont plateau, such as the Southern Outer Piedmont (ecoregion 45b), the Northern Outer Piedmont (45f), and parts of the Carolina Slate Belt (45C). It is uncommon in ecoregions noted for highly dissected topography, such as the Talladega Uplands (45d), Pine Mountain Ridges (45h), Kings Mountain (45i), and the Southern Inner Piedmont (45a).

The geologic substrate is is typically acidic igneous or metamorphic rock, which is low in ferromagnesian minerals and high in silica. Representative rock types include felsic crystalline rock, such as granite and gneiss, or fine-grained metasedimentary or metavolcanic rocks such as schist, argillite, and slate. Also common are highly weathered mixed mafic and felsic rocks.

Figure 4. Intersection of the Southern Piedmont Carolina Slate Belt and Felsic Crystalline Soil Systems. Helena soils are associated with this ecological site, depicted here on interfluves, on footslopes of hills, and around the heads of drainageways.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) Piedmont > Hillslope (2) Piedmont > Interfluve (3) Piedmont > Drainageway (4) Piedmont > Flat
Runoff class	Medium
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	310 – 780 ft
Slope	2 – 8%
Water table depth	18 – 30 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Table 3. Representative physiographic features (actual ranges)

Runoff class	Negligible to very high
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	190 – 930 ft
Slope	2 – 15%
Water table depth	12 – 40 in

Climatic features

On this ecological site, the average mean annual precipitation is 48 inches. On average, the rainiest months occur from February through March, as well as July through August. The driest months occur from April through May, along with October.

Table 4. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	167-192 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	195-226 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	45-50 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	157-199 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	185-237 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	43-55 in
Frost-free period (average)	180 days
Freeze-free period (average)	212 days
Precipitation total (average)	48 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 5. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 6. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 7. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 8. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 9. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 10. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) EXPERIMENT [USC00093271], Griffin, GA
(2) ASHEBORO 2 W [USC00310286], Asheboro, NC
(3) CHESNEE 7 WSW [USC00381625], Chesnee, SC
(4) CLEMSON UNIV [USC00381770], Clemson, SC
(5) GREENWOOD [USC00383754], Greenwood, SC
(6) CROZIER [USC00442142], Maidens, VA
(7) ATHENS BEN EPPS AP [USW00013873], Athens, GA
(8) DALLAS 7 NE [USC00092485], Dallas, GA
(9) SILER CITY 2 N [USC00317924], Siler City, NC
(10) CHASE CITY [USC00441606], Chase City, VA
(11) CARROLLTON [USC00091640], Carrollton, GA
(12) COVINGTON [USC00092318], Covington, GA
(13) ALBEMARLE [USC00310090], Albemarle, NC
(14) NEWBERRY [USC00386209], Newberry, SC
(15) COLUMBUS METRO AP [USW00093842], Columbus, GA
(16) ASHLAND 3 ENE [USC00010369], Ashland, AL
(17) ROCKFORD 3 ESE [USC00017020], Rockford, AL
(18) GAINESVILLE [USC00093621], Gainesville, GA
(19) MILLEDGEVILLE [USC00095874], Milledgeville, GA
(20) WEST POINT [USC00099291], Lanett, GA
(21) SIMMS WTP [USC00387885], Chesnee, SC
(22) CHARLOTTE DOUGLAS AP [USW00013881], Charlotte, NC
(23) LAWRENCEVILLE 3 E [USC00444768], Freeman, VA
(24) JOHN H KERR DAM [USC00444414], Boydton, VA
(25) CAMP PICKETT [USC00441322], Blackstone, VA
(26) AMELIA COURTHOUSE 1 [USC00440187], Amelia Court House, VA
(27) CLARKSVILLE [USC00441746], Clarksville, VA
(28) CLAYTON WTP [USC00311820], Clayton, NC
(29) MONROE 2 SE [USC00315771], Monroe, NC
(30) MONROE AP [USW00053872], Monroe, NC
(31) ARCOLA [USC00310241], Macon, NC
(32) ROXBORO 7 ESE [USC00317516], Roxboro, NC
(33) CHAPEL HILL WILLIAMS AP [USW00093785], Chapel Hill, NC
(34) ROCK HILL YORK CO AP [USW00053871], Rock Hill, SC
(35) KERSHAW 1SW [USC00384690], Kershaw, SC
(36) CHESTER 1 SE [USC00381633], Chester, SC
(37) SALUDA [USC00387631], Saluda, SC
(38) MC CORMICK 9 E [USC00385658], Mc Cormick, SC
(39) LAURENS [USC00385017], Laurens, SC
(40) YORK 4 S [USC00389625], York, SC
(41) PARR [USC00386688], Jenkinsville, SC
(42) WINTHROP UNIV [USC00389350], Rock Hill, SC
(43) GREENWOOD CO AP [USW00053874], Greenwood, SC
(44) WASHINGTON 2 ESE [USC00099157], Washington, GA
(45) SILOAM 3N [USC00098064], Greensboro, GA
(46) LA GRANGE 1N [USC00094949], LaGrange, GA
(47) MONTICELLO [USC00095988], Monticello, GA
(48) LAFAYETTE 2W [USC00014502], Lafayette, AL
(49) ALEXANDER CITY [USC00010160], Alexander City, AL
(50) CAMP HILL 2NW [USC00011324], Camp Hill, AL
(51) OPELIKA [USC00016129], Opelika, AL

Soil features

Soils on this ecological site are typically deep to very deep, somewhat poorly to moderately well drained Ultisols. The available water storage capacity of the profile is generally greater than 6 inches. Unweathered or partially weathered bedrock may be found at depths greater than 40 inches of the surface, but most soils associated with this ecological site are deeper to bedrock. Soils on this ecological site have a perched water table during the cooler months, typically at depths between 12 and 40 inches. On some occasions, water is perched by a fragipan or other restrictive layer.

Typically, parent materials are residuum derived from acidic igneous or metamorphic rock, such as granite, gneiss, schist, argillite, etc., or highly weathered mixed mafic and felsic rock. On footslopes and at the heads of drainageways, the residual material may be overlain by a thin mantle of colluvium or slope alluvium washed from higher areas.

Reaction in the subsoil is typically moderately acid to extremely acid (pH 3.5 to 6.0). In the surface layers, reaction varies with land use and management. Under low input or forested conditions, it generally falls somewhere between pH 4.5 and 6.0. Base saturation is less than 35 percent in the subsoil. These soils are usually of mixed minerology and are in a fine or fine-loamy particle size family.

Soils on this ecological site have a thermic soil temperature regime, which is characterized by a mean annual soil temperature of 15°C to 22°C and a winter to summer temperature differential of 6°C or more in the subsoil.

Modal soil taxa include: Aquic Hapludults, Aquic Kanhapludults, Oxyaquic Kanhapludults
Modal soil series include: Helena, Hard Labor, and Lignum
Other soils attributed to this ecological site include Abell, Alcovy, Biscoe, Bush River, Callison, Cataula, Colfax, Gills, Kirksey, Mandale, Margo, Mattaponi, Santuc, and Secrest.

Figure 11. An illustration of a soil profiles belonging to the Helena and Lignum series, the latter soil series being representative of this site in the Carolina Slate Belt, while the former is representative over felsic crystalline or mixed mafic and felsic rocks.

Figure 12. A soil profile of the Hard Labor series, a representative soil series associated with this ecological site over felsic crystalline rocks of the Southern Piedmont.

Table 5. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Residuum – igneous and metamorphic rock
Surface texture	(1) Sandy loam (2) Silt loam (3) Fine sandy loam (4) Loam
Family particle size	(1) Fine (2) Fine-loamy
Drainage class	Somewhat poorly drained to moderately well drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to moderate
Depth to restrictive layer	70 – 999 in
Soil depth	70 – 80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-80in)	8 – 10 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	4.5 – 6
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	8%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	1%

Table 6. Representative soil features (actual values)

Drainage class	Somewhat poorly drained to moderately well drained
Permeability class	Very slow to moderately rapid
Depth to restrictive layer	40 – 999 in
Soil depth	68 – 80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-80in)	6 – 11 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	4.5 – 6.5
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	13%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	3%

Ecological dynamics

U.S. National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) that are consistent with reference conditions on this ecological site include CEGL007237 Quercus rubra - Quercus alba - Carya glabra / Geranium maculatum. On north-facing or sheltered lower slopes, CEGL008465 Fagus grandifolia - Quercus rubra / Cornus florida / Polystichum acrostichoides - Hexastylis virginica may apply (USNVC 2022).

MATURE FORESTS
The reference state supports a closed to somewhat open canopy forest dominated by mesophytic and dry-mesophytic oaks, with a smaller contribution from bottomland oaks, hickories, and pines. Old-growth stands are uncommon.

Under reference conditions, oaks are dominant in the canopy. Representative species include white oak (Quercus alba) and northern red oak (Quercus rubra). The hickory component is of much lower cover. Pignut hickory (Carya glabra) and mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa) are typically most abundant. Hickories tend to be much more abundant in the understory. Bottomland oaks that frequent the canopy include willow oak (Quercus phellos) and water oak (Quercus nigra). These species are usually of relatively low cover in the canopy but can be abundant in the understory, especially under fire-suppressed conditions.

In mature stands, pines are typically scattered throughout the forest. Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) and shortleaf pine (P. echinata) are the principle species in most of the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA. According to historical accounts and witness tree records, the importance of the pine component naturally increases, though very gradually, from north to south. Prior to the European settlement, loblolly pine was largely confined to drainageways and adjacent lower slopes in the uplands of the Southern Piedmont. In the past, loblolly pine would have likely made a larger contribution to the pine component on this ecological site than on higher and drier ecological site concepts.

American beech (Fagus grandifolia) is another notable but relatively minor canopy species of mature stands associated with this ecological site. On north-facing slopes it can be an important canopy species, but otherwise it tends to be more important in the understory. Tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), though more abundant in the early stages of succession, is also characteristic of mature stands. Like the pine species, it is usually of low cover, colonizing and reproducing chiefly in canopy gaps.

In addition to the forenamed species, other characteristic species of the subcanopy layer include flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), red maple (Acer rubrum), common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum).

The shrub and herb layers are dominated by acid-loving flora, including those of the heath family, however the shrub and herb layers are less acidic in character than in drier and more infertile acidic uplands. Under reference conditions, the shrub layer is typically sparse, with seedlings and saplings of canopy species, or vines, occupying much of the cover.

Characteristic shrub species include American holly (Ilex opaca), bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), and several blueberry species (Vaccinium spp.). Characteristic vines include Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), roundleaf greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia), evening trumpetflower (Gelsemium sempervirens), and muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia).

Although the herb layer is generally sparse, it can be impressively species-rich under reference conditions, especially where fire has been reintroduced. Low species richness is often the result of long-term overgrazing by large deer populations. Species richness can be increased through effective deer population management, as well as through the reintroduction of regular, low-intensity ground fires.

Common herbaceous species include Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), littlebrownjug (Hexastylis arifolia), crippled cranefly (Tipularia discolor), dimpled troutlily (Erythronium umbilicatum), nakedflower ticktrefoil (Desmodium nudiflorum), Virginia snakeroot (Aristolochia serpentaria), and partridgeberry (Mitchella repens). Additional species representative of fire-maintained stands include hairy bedstraw (Galium pilosum), woodland sunflower (Helianthus divaricatus), several species of lespedeza (Lespedeza spp.) and ticktrefoil (Desmodium spp.), and an array of grasses and sedges.

DYNAMICS OF NATURAL SUCCESSION AND FIRE ECOLOGY
On Piedmont uplands, the historical influence of fire on successional dynamics was likely expressed on a continuum, from dry to moist, where moist or sheltered sites were shaped more by gap-driven dynamics and dry or exposed sites more by fire. On intermediate sites, their respective influence on successional dynamics probably fell somewhere in between. While the historic fire return interval is thought to be relatively similar across most of the Southern Piedmont uplands, moister sites were less prone to fire and hence burned less completely and at lower intensities than drier sites.

Like other moist oak-hickory forests in the region, successional dynamics are thought to be primarily gap-driven, with small-scale natural disturbances such as windthrow, drought, and disease, usually affecting only small portions of the forest at a time. Canopy gaps are readily colonized by early successional herbs and shrubs, and later by pines and opportunistic hardwoods. These localized events are inconspicuous, but cumulatively they help shape the age class distribution, structure, and species composition in these forests.

In the past, regular low-intensity fires would have kept the understory somewhat more open than at present and constrained the growth of fire-intolerant woody species. Periodic severe fires would have likely occurred during unusually dry and windy conditions, presumably resulting in catastrophic tree mortality and stand replacing changes. The reduction in the frequency of fires over the past century has allowed shade-tolerant, fire-sensitive trees such as red maple (Acer rubrum), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), and American holly (Ilex opaca) to become more abundant in many upland forests in the Southeast. These species are all expected components of the subcanopy on this ecological site, but they have proliferated in the absence of fire.

A combination of prescribed burns and selective removals can open up the understory and constrain the growth of fire-intolerant opportunistic species, thereby restoring the health and vigor of forests that evolved under a more regular fire regime.

YOUNG SECONDARY FORESTS
On relatively undisturbed sites, stands are uneven-aged, with at least some old trees present. In areas that were cultivated in the recent past, even-aged pine stands dominate the landscape, being replaced by oaks and hickories only as the pines die.

In general, young secondary forests on this ecological site are dominated by loblolly pine (P. taeda), along with opportunistic hardwoods such as sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), red maple (Acer rubrum), and tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera). Oaks and hickories are usually confined to the understory of young secondary stands. Their growth is temporarily suppressed by the cover of faster growing tree species.

In the central Piedmont of North Carolina and Virginia, Virginia pine (P. virginiana) becomes increasingly important in young secondary stands, particularly in the Carolina Slate Belt and even more so in regions to the west or north. In regions further south, loblolly pine is typically the more competitive pioneer under most site conditions, apart from higher elevation areas of the upper Piedmont where Virginia pine becomes more abundant.

Under a canopy of pines, a shift toward dry-site understory species is often observed. In the Southern Piedmont, old-field pine stands typically exhibit a sparse, xerophytic herb-shrub stratum, resulting from intense competition with the dominant pines, whose roots form a closed network within the upper few inches of soil. Low levels of sunlight and a thick layer of pine litter on the forest floor further suppress herb and shrub development. In such an environment, striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata), blueberry (Vaccinium sp.), and various other members of the heath family are well-adapted for survival (Billings 1938; Oosting 1942; Nelson 1957; Wharton 1978; Golden 1979; Barry 1980; Peet and Christensen 1980, 1987; Skeen et al. 1980; Felix III et al. 1983; Nelson 1986; Schafale and Weakley 1990; Cowell 1998; Spira 2011; Spooner et al. 2021; Fleming 2012; Guyette et al. 2012; Schafale 2012a, 2012b; Edwards et al. 2013; Vander Yacht et al. 2020; Fleming et al. 2021; Greenberg et al. 2021).

SPECIES LIST
Canopy layer: Quercus alba, Quercus rubra, Carya glabra, Carya tomentosa, Quercus phellos, Quercus nigra, Pinus taeda, Pinus echinata, Quercus falcata, Fagus grandifolia, Liriodendron tulipifera

Subcanopy layer: Cornus florida, Nyssa sylvatica, Acer rubrum, Carya spp., Quercus phellos, Quercus nigra, Diospyros virginiana, Fagus grandifolia, Ilex opaca, Prunus serotina, Oxydendrum arboreum, Sassafras albidum, Fraxinus americana, Liquidambar styraciflua,

Vines/lianas: Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Smilax rotundifolia, Campsis radicans, Vitis rotundifolia, Toxicodendron radicans, Gelsemium sempervirens, Loncera japonica (I),

Shrub layer: Ilex opaca, Euonymus americanus, Viburnum prunifolium, Vaccinium spp., Ligustrum sinense (I), Elaeagnus umbellata (I),

Herb layer - forbs: Polystichum acrostichoides, Hexastylis arifolia, Asplenium platyneuron, Tipularia discolor, Erythronium umbilicatum, Desmodium nudiflorum, Aristolochia serpentaria, Mitchella repens, Elephantopus carolinianus, Elephantopus tomentosus, Ruellia caroliniensis, Galium pilosum, Helianthus divaricatus, Verbena urticifolia, Geranium maculatum, Sanguinaria canadensis, Goodyera pubescens, Uvularia perfoliata, Geum canadense, Agrimonia parviflora, Oxalis violacea, Podophyllum peltatum, Lycopodium digitatum, Hypoxis hirsuta, Stellaria pubera, Galium circaezans,

Herb layer - graminoids: Dichanthelium spp., Carex spp. (cephalophora, digitalis, hirsutella, laxiflora, radiata), Luzula echinata, Microstegium vimineum (I)

(I) = introduced

State and transition model

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

T1A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T1B	-	Selective removals of the most valuable timber specimens, leaving inferior trees behind.
T1C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T1D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T2A	-	Long-term natural succession.
T2B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T2C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T2D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T3A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T3C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T3D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T4A	-	Abandonment of forestry practices.
T4B	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T4C	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T5A	-	Long-term cessation of grazing.
T5B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T5C	-	Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T6A	-	Agricultural abandonment.
T6B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T6C	-	Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

State 1 submodel, plant communities

1.1. Seasonally Wet Acidic Oak-Hickory Forest - Fire Maintained Phase

1.2. Seasonally Wet Acidic Oak-Hickory Forest - Fire Suppressed Phase

1.1A	-	Long-term exclusion of fire.
1.2A	-	Prescribed burns and selective removals.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Old-field Pine-Hardwood Forest Phase

2.2. Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

2.3. Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

2.1A	-	Clearcut logging.
2.2A	-	Natural succession.
2.2B	-	Brush management.
2.3A	-	Natural succession.

State 6 submodel, plant communities

6.1. Conservation-management Cropland Phase

6.2. Conventional-management Cropland Phase

6.1A	-	Conventional tillage is reintroduced.
6.2A	-	Implementation of conservation tillage and other soil conservation practices

State 1
Reference State

This mature forest state is generally dominated by mesophytic and dry-mesophytic upland oaks, with a smaller contribution from bottomland oaks, hickories, and pines.

Characteristics and indicators. Stands are uneven-aged with at least some old trees present.

Resilience management. Deer population management is critical to sustaining the diversity of herbaceous understory species.

Community 1.1
Seasonally Wet Acidic Oak-Hickory Forest - Fire Maintained Phase

This is a closed to somewhat open canopy mature forest community/phase. Regular low-intensity fires have been reintroduced, keeping the understory somewhat open, increasing the cover and diversity of herbaceous species and limiting the importance of fire-intolerant woody species.

Resilience management. This community/phase is maintained through regular prescribed burns. The recruitment of fire-adapted oaks and pines benefits from regular low-intensity ground fires, as these forests evolved under a more regular fire regime. Tree ring data suggests that the mean fire return interval of the past in the Southern Piedmont is approximately 6 years, though the actual return interval varied from 3 to 16 years. To approximate the pre-colonial fire regime, prescribed burns should be carried out every 4 to 8 years.

Forest overstory. The overstory is dominated by upland oaks. Representative species include white oak (Quercus alba) and northern red oak (Quercus rubra). Hickories make a smaller contribution to the canopy (Carya glabra, C. tomentosa, C. ovalis), along with scattered pines (Pinus spp.). Bottomland oaks that may be present in the canopy include willow oak (Quercus phellos) and water oak (Quercus nigra). These species are usually not abundant in fire-maintained stands.

Forest understory. Representative understory tree species include flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), and hickory (Carya spp.).

Fire-sensitive tree species such as American beech (Fagus grandifolia), red maple (Acer rubrum), willow oak (Quercus phellos), and water oak (Quercus nigra) may be present, but they are usually less abundant in fire maintained stands.

Representative understory shrub species include American holly (Ilex opaca), bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), and several blueberry species (Vaccinium spp.).

Dominant plant species

white oak (Quercus alba), tree
northern red oak (Quercus rubra), tree
pignut hickory (Carya glabra), tree
flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), tree
willow oak (Quercus phellos), tree
water oak (Quercus nigra), tree
blueberry (Vaccinium), shrub
bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), shrub
American holly (Ilex opaca), shrub
evening trumpetflower (Gelsemium sempervirens), shrub
muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia), shrub
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
rosette grass (Dichanthelium), grass
oval-leaf sedge (Carex cephalophora), grass
slender woodland sedge (Carex digitalis), grass
fuzzy wuzzy sedge (Carex hirsutella), grass
splitbeard bluestem (Andropogon ternarius), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
poverty oatgrass (Danthonia spicata), grass
hedgehog woodrush (Luzula echinata), grass
Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), other herbaceous
littlebrownjug (Hexastylis arifolia), other herbaceous
ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), other herbaceous
crippled cranefly (Tipularia discolor), other herbaceous
dimpled troutlily (Erythronium umbilicatum), other herbaceous
nakedflower ticktrefoil (Desmodium nudiflorum), other herbaceous
Virginia snakeroot (Aristolochia serpentaria), other herbaceous
Carolina elephantsfoot (Elephantopus carolinianus), other herbaceous
Carolina wild petunia (Ruellia caroliniensis), other herbaceous
hairy bedstraw (Galium pilosum), other herbaceous

Community 1.2
Seasonally Wet Acidic Oak-Hickory Forest - Fire Suppressed Phase

This is a closed canopy mature forest community/phase. This phase accounts for the majority of contemporary examples. Canopy cover is higher than in stands in which fire has been reintroduced. The pine component can have a greater proportion of loblolly or Virginia pine and the understory usually contains a greater proportion of fire-intolerant species. The herbaceous understory is typically sparse.

Forest overstory. The overstory is dominated by upland oaks. Representative species include white oak (Quercus alba) and northern red oak (Quercus rubra). Bottomland oaks, hickories, and pines make a smaller contribution to the canopy. Representative hickory species include pignut hickory (Carya glabra) and mockernut hickory (Carya tomentosa). Bottomland oaks, such as willow oak (Quercus phellos) and water oak (Quercus nigra), usually occupy some portion of the canopy cover.

Forest understory. Representative understory tree species include flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), American persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), sourwood (Oxydendrum arboreum), and hickory (Carya spp.), along with fire-sensitive species such as American beech (Fagus grandifolia), American holly (Ilex opaca), red maple (Acer rubrum), willow oak (Quercus phellos), and water oak (Quercus nigra).

Representative understory shrub species include American holly (Ilex opaca), bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), and several blueberry species (Vaccinium spp.).

The herb layer is sparser and less diverse than in the fire maintained phase.

Dominant plant species

white oak (Quercus alba), tree
northern red oak (Quercus rubra), tree
pignut hickory (Carya glabra), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), tree
willow oak (Quercus phellos), tree
water oak (Quercus nigra), tree
American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
American holly (Ilex opaca), tree
American holly (Ilex opaca), shrub
bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
roundleaf greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia), shrub
blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), shrub
blueberry (Vaccinium), shrub
oval-leaf sedge (Carex cephalophora), grass
slender woodland sedge (Carex digitalis), grass
fuzzy wuzzy sedge (Carex hirsutella), grass
Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), other herbaceous
littlebrownjug (Hexastylis arifolia), other herbaceous
ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), other herbaceous
crippled cranefly (Tipularia discolor), other herbaceous
dimpled troutlily (Erythronium umbilicatum), other herbaceous
partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), other herbaceous
nakedflower ticktrefoil (Desmodium nudiflorum), other herbaceous

Pathway 1.1A
Community 1.1 to 1.2

Long-term exclusion of fire causes an increase in fire-intolerant understory species and a deterioration of the abundance and diversity of herbaceous species.

Pathway 1.2A
Community 1.2 to 1.1

The fire suppressed phase can be managed towards the fire maintained phase through a combination of prescribed burns and selective removals. To approximate the pre-colonial fire regime, prescribed burns should be carried out every 4 to 8 years.

Context dependence. After decades of fire suppression, most upland hardwood forests of the Southeast have undergone mesophication, or succession toward forest systems that are less apt to burn. If prescribed fire is to be used as a management tool in fire suppressed ecosystems of the Piedmont, planning will be needed in some forest systems to overcome the effects of mesophication in the early stages of fire reintroduction.

State 2
Secondary Succession State

This state develops in the immediate aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Which species colonize a particular location in the wake of a disturbance does involve a considerable degree of chance. It also depends a great deal on the type, duration, and magnitude of the disturbance event.

Characteristics and indicators. Plant age distribution is even. Plants exhibit pioneering traits such as rapid growth, early reproduction, and shade-intolerance.

Community 2.1
Old-field Pine-Hardwood Forest Phase

This forested successional phase develops in the wake of long-term agricultural abandonment or other large-scale disturbances that have led to canopy removal in the recent past. Stands are even-aged and species diversity is low. The canopy is usually dominated by pines, though opportunistic hardwoods can also be important, particularly in the early stages of tree establishment. Species that exhibit pioneering traits are usually most abundant.

Forest overstory. The overstory is typically dominated by pines. Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) is the most characteristic species, followed by shortleaf pine (P. echinata), and to the north and west Virginia pine (P. virginiana). Tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera) can also be an important tree species, at times dominating the canopy layer in young secondary stands.

Forest understory. Sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is the most representative understory tree species, though its importance tends to decline as the pines mature. Other common species include red maple (Acer rubrum), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), American holly (Ilex opaca), and white ash (Fraxinus americana). Seedlings of oaks and hickories are usually present in the understory. These seedlings are released gradually as the forest matures and the pines begin to die off.

In the shrub layer, representative species include American holly (Ilex opaca), various blueberries (Vaccinium spp.), and several vines.

Dominant plant species

loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
hybrid hickory (Carya), tree
American holly (Ilex opaca), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia), shrub
roundleaf greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia), shrub
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
evening trumpetflower (Gelsemium sempervirens), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
blueberry (Vaccinium), shrub
American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana), shrub
littlehead nutrush (Scleria oligantha), grass
striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata), other herbaceous
ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), other herbaceous
wild garlic (Allium vineale), other herbaceous
Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), other herbaceous
fan clubmoss (Lycopodium digitatum), other herbaceous
sparselobe grapefern (Botrychium biternatum), other herbaceous
partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), other herbaceous

Community 2.2
Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

This successional phase is dominated by shrubs and vines, along with seedlings of opportunistic hardwoods and pines. It typically develops beginning in the third year after agricultural abandonment or clearcut logging. It grades into the forested successional phase as tree seedlings become saplings and begin to occupy more of the canopy cover.

Forest overstory. Species composition varies considerably from location to location. Non-native species usually occupy some portion of the vine or shrub cover in most examples.

Dominant plant species

sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana), tree
Chinaberrytree (Melia azedarach), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), tree
black cherry (Prunus serotina), tree
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), shrub
winged sumac (Rhus copallinum), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
eastern baccharis (Baccharis halimifolia), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
sweet autumn virginsbower (Clematis terniflora), shrub
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), grass
velvet panicum (Dichanthelium scoparium), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
aster (Symphyotrichum), other herbaceous
sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata), other herbaceous
Indianhemp (Apocynum cannabinum), other herbaceous
yellow crownbeard (Verbesina occidentalis), other herbaceous

Community 2.3
Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

This transient community is composed of the first herbaceous invaders in the aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale natural disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Species composition is highly variable at this stage of succession. In addition to the named species, other herbaceous pioneers common to this ecological site include wild lettuce (Lactuca spp.), fleabane (Erigeron spp.), Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata), vetch (Vicia spp.), yellow crownbeard (Verbesina occidentalis), Queen Anne's lace (Daucus carota), evening primrose (Oenothera spp.), Indianhemp (Apocynum cannabinum), slender yellow woodsorrel (Oxalis dillenii), cudweed (Pseudognaphalium spp.), Brazilian vervain (Verbena brasiliensis), morning-glory (Ipomoea spp.), garden cornflower (Centaurea cyanus), common mullein (Verbascum thapsus), Indian-tobacco (Lobelia inflata), spiny sowthistle (Sonchus asper), several species of thoroughwort (Eupatorium spp.), and many others.

Resilience management. If the user wishes to maintain this community/phase for wildlife or pollinator habitat, a prescribed burn, mowing, or prescribed grazing will be needed at least once annually to prevent community pathway 2.3A. To that end, as part of long-term maintenance, periodic overseeding of wildlife or pollinator seed mixtures can be helpful in ensuring the viability of certain desired species and maintaining the desired composition of species for user goals.

Dominant plant species

greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), grass
southern crabgrass (Digitaria ciliaris), grass
smooth crabgrass (Digitaria ischaemum), grass
Japanese bristlegrass (Setaria faberi), grass
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), grass
annual bluegrass (Poa annua), grass
small carpetgrass (Arthraxon hispidus), grass
American burnweed (Erechtites hieraciifolius), other herbaceous
American pokeweed (Phytolacca americana), other herbaceous
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
beggarticks (Bidens), other herbaceous
annual ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), other herbaceous
knotweed (Polygonum), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
aster (Symphyotrichum), other herbaceous
Canadian horseweed (Conyza canadensis), other herbaceous
bitter dock (Rumex obtusifolius), other herbaceous

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.3

The old-field pine-hardwood forest phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

The shrub-dominated successional phase naturally moves towards the old-field pine-hardwood forest through natural succession.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3

The shrub-dominated successional phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through brush management, including herbicide application, mechanical removal, prescribed grazing, or fire.

Context dependence. Note: if the user wishes to use this community pathway to create wildlife or pollinator habitat, please contact a local NRCS office for a species list specific to the area of interest and user needs. If the user wishes to maintain the shrub-dominated successional phase long term, for wildlife habitat or other uses, periodic use of this community pathway is necessary to prevent community pathway 2.2A, which happens inevitably unless natural succession is set back through disturbance.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2

The herbaceous early successional phase naturally moves towards the shrub-dominated successional phase through natural succession. The process takes approximately 3 years on average, barring any major disturbances capable of inhibiting natural succession.

State 3
High-graded Hardwood Forest State

This state develops as a consequence of high-grading, where the most valuable trees are removed, leaving less desirable timber specimens behind. Trees left behind include undesirable timber species, trees of poor form, diseased trees, or genetically inferior trees.

Characteristics and indicators. Typically, high-graded stands consist of a combination of residual stems from the previous stand, a high proportion of undesirable shade-tolerant species, along with some regrowth from desirable timber species. In some cases, large-diameter trees of desirable timber species may be present, but upon closer inspection, these trees usually have serious defects that resulted in their being left behind in earlier cuts.

Resilience management. Landowners with high-graded stands have two options for improving timber production: 1) rehabilitate, or 2) regenerate. To rehabilitate a stand, the landowner must evaluate existing trees to determine if rehabilitation is justified. If the proportion of high-quality specimens present in the stand is low, then the stand should be regenerated. In many cases, poor quality of the existing stand is the result of decades of mismanagement. Drastic measures are often required to get the stand back into good timber production.

Dominant plant species

red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tree
American holly (Ilex opaca), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
hybrid hickory (Carya), tree
pine (Pinus), tree
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass

State 4
Managed Pine Plantation State

This converted state is dominated by planted timber trees. Loblolly pine (Pinus taeda) is the most commonly planted species. Even-aged management is the most common timber management system. Note: if the user wishes to convert stands dominated by hardwoods to planted pine, clearcutting will usually be necessary first, allowing herbaceous pioneers to establish on the site in the weeks or months prior to planting. Users should utilize measures described in transition T2B under these circumstances.

Resilience management. Hardwood Encroachment: Hardwood encroachment can be problematic in managed pine plantations. Good site preparation, proper stocking, and periodic thinning are advisable to reduce hardwood competition. Overstocking: The overstocked condition commonly occurs in naturally regenerated stands. When competition from other pines begins to impact the health and productivity of the stand, precommercial thinning should be considered. At this point, the benefit of thinning usually outweighs the potential for invasion and competition from non-pine species. As the target window for thinning passes, the condition of the stand can slowly deteriorate if no action is taken. Under long-term overstocked conditions, trees are more prone to stresses, including pine bark beetle infestation and damage from wind or ice. High-grading: In subsequent commercial thinnings, care should be taken in tree selection. High quality specimens should be left to reach maturity, while slower growing trees or those with defects should be removed sooner. If high quality specimens are harvested first, trees left behind are often structurally unsound, diseased, genetically inferior, or of poor form. This can have long-term implications for tree genetics and for the condition of the stand (Felix III 1983; Miller et al. 1995, 2003; Megalos 2019).

Dominant plant species

loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
black cherry (Prunus serotina), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
hybrid hickory (Carya), tree
American holly (Ilex opaca), shrub
blueberry (Vaccinium), shrub
grape (Vitis), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
autumn olive (Elaeagnus umbellata), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
evening trumpetflower (Gelsemium sempervirens), shrub
St. Johnswort (Hypericum), shrub
American beautyberry (Callicarpa americana), shrub
rosette grass (Dichanthelium), grass
littlehead nutrush (Scleria oligantha), grass
longleaf woodoats (Chasmanthium sessiliflorum), grass
sortbeard plumegrass (Saccharum brevibarbe var. contortum), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata), other herbaceous
ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), other herbaceous
sericea lespedeza (Lespedeza cuneata), other herbaceous
Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), other herbaceous
fan clubmoss (Lycopodium digitatum), other herbaceous

State 5
Pasture/Hayland State

This converted state is dominated by herbaceous forage species.

Resilience management. Overgrazing and High Foot Traffic: In areas that are subject to high foot traffic from livestock and equipment, and/or long-term overgrazing, unpalatable weedy species tend to invade, as most desirable forage species are less competitive under these conditions. High risk areas include locations where livestock congregate for water, shade, or feed, and in travel lanes, gates, and other areas of heavy use. Plant species that are indicative of overgrazing or excessive foot traffic on this ecological site include buttercup (Ranunculus spp.), plantain (Plantago spp.), curly dock (Rumex crispus), sneezeweed (Helenium amarum), cudweed (Pseudognaphalium spp.), slender yellow woodsorrel (Oxalis dillenii), Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), Virginia pepperweed (Lepidium virginicum), black medick (Medicago lupulina), annual bluegrass (Poa annua), poverty rush (Juncus tenuis), and Indian goosegrass (Eleusine indica), among others. A handful of desirable forage species are also tolerant of heavy grazing and high foot traffic, including white clover (Trifolium repens), dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum), and bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon). An overabundance of these species, along with poor plant vigor and areas of bare soil, may imply that excessive foot traffic and/or overgrazing is a concern, either in the present or in the recent past. Soil Fertility and pH Management: Like overgrazing and excessive foot traffic, inadequate soil fertility and pH management can lead to invasion from several common weeds of pastures and hayfields. Species indicative of poor soil fertility and/or suboptimal pH on this ecological site include broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), common sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella), and Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), among others. Most of these weedy invaders do not compete well in dense, rapidly growing pastures and hayfields. By maintaining soil fertility and pH, managing grazing to favor desirable forage species, and clipping behind grazing rotations when needed, forage grasses and forbs can usually outcompete weedy invaders. Brush Encroachment: Brush encroachment can be problematic in some pastures, particularly near fence lines where there is often a ready seed source. Pastures subject to low stocking density and long-duration grazing rotations can also be susceptible to encroachment from woody plants. Shorter grazing rotations of higher stocking density can help alleviate pressure from shrubs and vines with low palatability or thorny stems. Clipping behind grazing rotations, annual brush hogging, and multispecies grazing systems (cattle with or followed by goats) can also be helpful. Common woody invaders of pasture on this ecological site include rose (Rosa spp.), blackberry (Rubus spp.), saw greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox), Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), black cherry (Prunus serotina), and Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense).

Dominant plant species

tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), grass
orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), grass
dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum), grass
perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), grass
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), grass
hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), grass
purpletop tridens (Tridens flavus), grass
bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), grass
white clover (Trifolium repens), other herbaceous
red clover (Trifolium pratense), other herbaceous
vetch (Vicia), other herbaceous
narrowleaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
field clover (Trifolium campestre), other herbaceous
black medick (Medicago lupulina), other herbaceous
common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), other herbaceous
wild garlic (Allium vineale), other herbaceous

State 6
Cropland State

This converted state produces food or fiber for human uses. It is dominated by domesticated crop species, along with typical weedy invaders of cropland.

Community 6.1
Conservation-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the practice of no-tillage or strip-tillage, and other soil conservation practices. Though no-till systems offer many benefits, several weedy species tend to be more problematic under this type of management system. In contrast with conventional tillage systems, problematic species in no-till systems include biennial or perennial weeds, owing to the fact that tillage is no longer used in weed management.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous
upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), other herbaceous
cultivated tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), other herbaceous

Community 6.2
Conventional-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the recurrent use of tillage as a management tool. Due to the frequent disturbance regime, weedy invaders tend to be annual herbaceous species that reproduce quickly and are prolific seed producers.

Resilience management. The potential for soil loss is high under this management system. Measures should be put in place to limit erosion.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous
upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), other herbaceous
cultivated tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), other herbaceous

Pathway 6.1A
Community 6.1 to 6.2

The conservation-management cropland phase can shift to the conventional-management cropland phase through cessation of conservation tillage practices and the reintroduction of conventional tillage practices.

Context dependence. Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after reintroduction of conventional tillage practices. These changes continue to manifest as conventional tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Pathway 6.2A
Community 6.2 to 6.1

The conventional-management cropland phase can be brought into the conservation-management cropland phase through the implementation of one of several conservation tillage options, including no-tillage or strip-tillage, along with implementation of other soil conservation practices.

Context dependence. Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after implementation of conservation tillage. These changes continue to manifest as conservation tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

The reference state can transition to the secondary succession state through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The reference state can transition to the high-graded hardwood forest state through selective removal of the most valuable trees, leaving undesirable timber specimens behind. This may occur through multiple cutting cycles over the course of decades or longer, each cut progressively worsening the condition of the stand.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

The reference state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. Herbicide applications, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 6

The reference state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 1

The secondary succession state can transition to the reference state through long-term natural succession. This process can be accelerated to some degree by a combination of prescribed burns and selective harvesting of pines and opportunistic hardwoods.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

The secondary succession state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and planting of timber trees. Thinning alone may be sufficient for portions of the forest if pines have already established, though it is rarely sufficient for an entire forest patch.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 5

The secondary succession state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning wooded or semi-wooded land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T2D
State 2 to 6

The secondary succession state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, 4) weed control, 5) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking may be needed to successfully transition land that has been fallow for some time back to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

The high-graded hardwood forest state can transition to the secondary succession state through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Transition T3C
State 3 to 5

The high-graded hardwood forest state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Transition T3D
State 3 to 6

The high-graded hardwood forest state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, 4) herbicide application, 5) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the secondary succession state through abandonment of forestry practices (with or without timber tree harvest).

Transition T4B
State 4 to 5

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) timber harvest, 2) mechanical stump and debris removal, 3) seedbed preparation, 4) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. Applications of fertilizer and lime can be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T4C
State 4 to 6

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the cropland state through 1) timber harvest, 2) mechanical stump and debris removal, 3) seedbed preparation, 4) applications of fertilizer/lime, 5) herbicide application, 6) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 2

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the secondary succession state through long-term cessation of grazing.

Transition T5B
State 5 to 4

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and tree planting.

Transition T5C
State 5 to 6

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the cropland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) applications of fertilizer/lime, 3) herbicide application, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 2

The cropland state can transition to the secondary succession state through agricultural abandonment.

Transition T6B
State 6 to 4

The cropland state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and tree planting.

Transition T6C
State 6 to 5

The cropland state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) weed control, and 3) planting of perennial forage grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. To convert cropland to pasture or hayland, weed control and good seed-soil contact are important. It is also critical to review the labels of herbicides used for weed control and on the previous crop. Many herbicides have plant-back restrictions, which if not followed could carryover and kill forage seedlings as they germinate. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Additional community tables

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Data collection and analysis of field data will be performed during the Verification Stage of ESD development.

Other references

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Billings, W.D. 1938. The structure and development of old field shortleaf pine stands and certain associated physical properties of the soil. Ecological Monographs. 8(3):437-499.

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C.A. Carpenter, W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections for the conterminous United States. General Technical Report WO-76D. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Washington, D.C.

Cowell, C.M. 1998. Historical Change in Vegetation and Disturbance on the Georgia Piedmont. The American Midland Naturalist. 140(1):78-89.

Daniels, R.B., S.W. Boul, H.J. Kleiss, C.A. Ditzler. 1999. Soil Systems in North Carolina. Technical Bulletin 314. North Carolina State University, Soil Science Department. Raleigh, N.C.

Daniels, R.B. 1987. Soil Erosion and Degradation in the Southern Piedmont of the USA. In: M.G. Wolman, F.G.A. Fournier (eds.) Land Transformation in Agriculture. John Wiley and Sons. New York, NY.

Dearman, T.L., L.A. James. 2019. Patterns of legacy sediment deposits in a small South Carolina Piedmont catchment, USA. Geomorphology. 343(15):1-14.

Edwards, L., J., Ambrose, and L.K. Kirkman. 2013. Piedmont Ecoregion. In L. Edwards et al. (ed.) The natural communities of Georgia. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA. 257-345.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2013. Level III and IV ecoregions of the continental
United States. National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory. Corvallis, Oregon. Map scale 1:3,000,000.

Felix III, A.C., T.L. Sharik, B.S. McGinnes, W.C. Johnson. 1983. Succession in loblolly pine plantations converted from second-growth forest in the Central Piedmont of Virginia.

Fenneman, N.M., Johnson D.W. 1946. Physiographic Divisions of the Conterminous U.S. U.S. Geological Survey. Washington, DC.

Fleming, G.P. 2012. The Nature of the Virginia Flora. P. 24-75. In A.S. Weakley, J.C. Ludwig, J.F. Townsend, B. Crowder (ed.) Flora of Virginia. Foundation of the Virginia Flora Project Inc., Richmond. Fort Worth: Botanical Research Institute of Texas Press.

Fleming, G. P., K. D. Patterson, and K. Taverna. 2021. The natural communities of Virginia: A classification of ecological community groups and community types. Third approximation. Version 3.3. Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of Natural Heritage, Richmond, VA. [http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural-heritage/natural-communities/]

Golden, M.S. 1979. Forest vegetation of the lower Alabama piedmont. Ecology. 60:770-782.

Greenberg, C.H., B.S. Collins, S. Goodrick, M.C. Stambaugh, G.R. Wein. 2021. Introduction to Fire Ecology Across USA Forested Ecosystems: Past, Present, and Future. P. 1-30. In C.H. Greenberg and B. Collins (ed.) Fire ecology and management: past, present, and future of US forested ecosystems, Volume 39. Springer International Publishing. Cham, Switzerland.

Griffith, G.E., J.M. Omernik, J.A. Comstock, M.P. Schafale, W.H. McNab, D.R. Lenat, T.F. MacPherson, J.B. Glover, V.B. Shelburne. 2002. Ecoregions of North Carolina and South Carolina. United States Geological Survey. Reston, Virginia.

Guyette, R.P., M.C. Stambaugh, D.C. Dey, R.M. Muzika. 2012. Predicting fire frequency with chemistry and climate. Ecosystems. 15:322-335.

Keever, C. 1950. Causes of succession on old fields of the Piedmont, North Carolina. Ecological Monographs. 20(3):229-250.

Megalos, M. 2019. Thinning Pine Stands. Woodland Owners Notes. NC State Extension. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/thinning-pine-stands (accessed 18 March 2023).

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Miller, J.H., B.R. Zutter, R.A. Newbold, M.B. Edwards, S.M. Zedaker. 2003. Stand dynamics and plant associates of loblolly pine plantations to midrotation after early intensive vegetation management – a southeastern United States regional study. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 27(4):221-236.

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Contributors

Yogev Erez
Dee Pederson

Approval

Charles Stemmans, 5/02/2025

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	05/03/2025
Approved by	Charles Stemmans
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Presence of water flow patterns:
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:

Sub-dominant:

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Perennial plant reproductive capability:

Download reference sheet

Click on box and path labels to scroll to the respective text.

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State

2. Secondary Succession State

3. High-graded Hardwood Forest State

4. Managed Pine Plantation State

5. Pasture/Hayland State

6. Cropland State

States 1, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)

1. Reference State

5. Pasture/Hayland State

6. Cropland State

States 2, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)

2. Secondary Succession State

5. Pasture/Hayland State

6. Cropland State

T1A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T1B	-	Selective removals of the most valuable timber specimens, leaving inferior trees behind.
T1C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T1D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T2A	-	Long-term natural succession.
T2B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T2C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T2D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T3A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T3C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T3D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T4A	-	Abandonment of forestry practices.
T4B	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T4C	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T5A	-	Long-term cessation of grazing.
T5B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T5C	-	Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T6A	-	Agricultural abandonment.
T6B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T6C	-	Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.