Clayey
Scenario model
Current ecosystem state
Select a state
Management practices/drivers
Select a transition or restoration pathway
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Transition T1A
Introduction of exotic cool-season grasses
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Transition T2A
Extended periods of non-use or very light grazing, no fire
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Restoration pathway R3A
Long term prescribed grazing with prescribed burning
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Restoration pathway R4A
Successful range seeding with prescribed grazing and prescribed fire
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Restoration pathway R4B
Failed range seeding
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Transition T5A
Cessation of annual cropping
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No transition or restoration pathway between the selected states has been described
Target ecosystem state
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Description
This state represents the natural range of variability that dominates the dynamics of this ecological site. This state is composed predominately of cool-season grasses. Prior to European influence the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included occasional fire and grazing by large herding ungulates. Timing of fires and grazing, coupled with weather events, dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Today the primary disturbances are from a lack of fire and concentrated livestock grazing. Grasses that are desirable for livestock and wildlife can decline and a corresponding increase in less desirable grasses will occur. Exotic species did not occur in this state.
Characteristics and indicators
Because of changes in disturbances and other environmental factors (particularly the widespread occurrence of exotic species), the Reference State is considered to no longer exist.
Resilience management
If intact, the reference state should probably be managed with current disturbance regimes which has permitted the site to remain in reference condition, as well as maintaining the quality and integrity of associated ecological sites. Maintenance of the reference condition is contingent upon a monitoring protocol to guide management.
Submodel
Description
This state is similar to the State 1: Reference State but has now been colonized by exotic cool-season grasses (often Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass). Although the state is still dominated by native grasses, an increase in the exotic cool-season grasses can be expected.
These exotic cool-season grasses have been particularly and consistently invasive under long-term non-use and no fire. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial techniques (e.g., prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed, monitored, and evaluated with respect to that objective. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic cool-season grasses, the transition to State 3: Invaded State should be expected.
Characteristics and indicators
The presence of trace amounts of exotic cool-season grasses indicates a transition from State 1 to State 2. The presence of exotic biennial or perennial leguminous forbs (i.e., sweet clover, black medic) may not, on their own, indicate a transition from State 1 to State 2 but may facilitate that transition.
Resilience management
To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial techniques (e.g., prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully chosen, constructed, and evaluated with respect to that objective.
Grazing management should be applied that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. This may include: (1) early spring grazing when exotic cool-season grasses are actively growing and native cool-season grasses are dormant; (2) applying proper deferment periods allowing native grasses to recover and maintain or improve vigor; (3) adjusting overall grazing intensity to reduce excessive plant litter (above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 – see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet); (4) incorporating early heavy spring utilization which focuses grazing pressure on exotic cool-season grasses and reduces plant litter, provided that livestock are moved when grazing selection shifts from exotic cool-season grasses to native grasses.
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that maintains or enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. Prescribed burns should be applied as needed to adequately reduce/remove excessive plant litter and maintain the competitive advantage for native species. Timing of prescribed burns (spring vs. summer vs. fall) should be adjusted to account for differences in annual growing conditions and applied during windows of opportunity to best shift the competitive advantage to the native species.
Submodel
Description
This state is the result of invasion and dominance of the exotic cool-season grasses (e.g., Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, quackgrass). These exotic cool-season grasses often form monotypic stands; as a result, plant diversity is often markedly reduced and peak production is restricted to late spring/early summer. These exotics are also particularly well adapted to heavy grazing. Once the state is well established, even drastic events such as high intensity fires driven by high fuel loads will not result in more than a very short-term reduction of these species. Native forbs generally decrease in production, abundance, diversity, and richness compared to that of State 1: Reference State and may include white heath aster, goldenrod, common yarrow, and white sagebrush. Shrubs, such as western snowberry and rose, may show marked increases.
Annual production of this state may vary widely, in part due to variations in the extent of invasion by exotic cool-season grasses. However, annual production may be in the range of 2700-4200 pounds.
Characteristics and indicators
This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.
Resilience management
Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning and/or brush management may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g., western snowberry) populations.
Submodel
Description
This state often results from the abandonment of cropland, hayland, or residences/farmsteads. Vegetation is typically dominated by Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass with a variety of annual and weedy perennial forbs. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this phase is plant succession following cropland abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, some of which may be noxious weeds needing control. However, exotic cool-season grasses (such as Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass) come to dominate the site.
Characteristics and indicators
Tillage has destroyed the native plant community, altered soil structure and biology, reduced soil organic matter, and resulted in the formation of a tillage induced compacted layer which is restrictive to root growth. Removal of perennial grasses and forbs results in decreased infiltration and increased runoff.
Resilience management
Continued tillage will maintain the state. Control of noxious weeds will be required.
Submodel
Mechanism
This Transition from State 1: Reference State to State 2: Native/Invaded State results from the introduction of exotic cool-season grasses, often Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass. This transition is probably inevitable, and as such may occur under a wide range of managerial conditions (e.g. heavy season-long grazing, complete rest and no fire).
Constraints to recovery
Current knowledge and technology will not facilitate a successful restoration to Reference State.
Mechanism
This Transition from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 3: Invaded State often occurs during extended periods of non-use or very light grazing and no fire (and may occur in other situations as well). Exotic cool-season grasses, generally Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass, become the dominant graminoids.
Studies indicate that a threshold may exist in this transition when Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30% of the plant community and native grasses represent less than 40% of the plant community composition. Similar thresholds may exist for smooth brome and quackgrass. This transition may occur under a wide range of managerial conditions ranging from non-use and no fire to heavy season-long grazing (primarily Kentucky bluegrass).
Constraints to recovery
Variations in growing conditions (e.g., cool, wet spring) will influence effects of various management activities on exotic cool-season grass populations.
Mechanism
This Restoration Pathway from the Invaded State to the Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with the implementation of long-term prescribed grazing and prescribed burning to reduce the exotic species and simultaneously increase the native species.
Context dependence
Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species.
Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g., September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded.
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g., available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation (e.g., “flopped” Kentucky bluegrass); (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g., backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses).
Mechanism
This Restoration Pathway from the Invaded State to the Native/Invaded State can be accomplished with a successful native seeding. Following seeding, prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, haying, or use of herbicides will generally be necessary to achieve the desired result and control any noxious weeds.
Context dependence
A successful range planting will include proper seedbed preparation, weed control (both prior to and after the planting), selection of adapted native species representing functional/structural groups inherent to the State 1, and proper seeding technique.
Management (e.g., prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) during and after establishment must be applied in a manner that maintains the competitive advantage for the seeded native species. Adding non-native species can impact the above and below ground biota. Elevated soil nitrogen levels have been shown to benefit smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass more than some native grasses. As a result, fertilization, exotic legumes in the seeding mix, and other techniques that increase soil nitrogen may promote smooth brome and Kentucky bluegrass invasion.
The method or methods of herbaceous weed treatment will be site specific to each situation; but generally, the goal would be to apply the pesticide, mechanical control, or biological control (either singularly or in combination) in a manner that shifts the competitive advantage from the targeted species to the native grasses and forbs. The control method(s) should be as specific to the targeted species as possible to minimize impacts to non-target species.
Mechanism
This restoration pathway from State 4: Go-Back State to State 3: Invaded State results from a failed range planting and/or secondary succession.
Context dependence
Failed range plantings can result from many causes (both singularly and in combination) including drought, poor seedbed preparation, improper seeding methods, seeded species not adapted to the site, insufficient weed control, herbicide carryover, poor seed quality (purity & germination), and/or improper management.
Mechanism
This transition from any plant community to State 4: Go-Back State. It is most commonly associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of range planting, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g., development of a tillage induced compacted layer (plow pan), erosion, fertility, and/or herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.
Model keys
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The Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.