Physiographic features

This site typically occurs on lake plains, till-floored lake plains, outwash plains, and delta plains where they are on flats and on slightly convex slopes adjacent to shallow depressions. It also occurs on isolated areas of till plain and on some low terraces of drainageways; flooding on these drainageways is rare to occasional with a brief duration. The subsurface hydrology of this site has been considered more determinative of the plant community than landform or soils variability; further investigation and documentation of the landform/soils/ hydrology/plant relationship is needed. Slopes typically are less than 3 percent.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Climatic features

MLRA 56A is considered to have a continental climate – cold winters and relatively hot summers, low to moderate humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature may also abound. The climate is the result of this MLRA’s location near the geographic center of North America. There are few natural barriers on the northern Great Plains and air masses move freely across the plains and account for rapid changes in temperature.

Annual precipitation typically ranges from 18 to 23 inches per year. The average annual temperature is about 40°F. January is the coldest month with average temperatures ranging from about 1°F (Pembina, North Dakota (ND) to about 11°F (Wheaton, Minnesota (MN). July is the warmest month with temperatures averaging from about 68°F (Pembina, ND) to about 73°F (Wheaton, MN). The range of normal average monthly temperatures between the coldest and warmest months is about 65°F. This large annual range attests to the continental nature of this area's climate. Winds are estimated to average about 13 miles per hour annually, ranging from about 15 miles per hour during the spring to about 11 miles per hour during the summer. Daytime winds are generally stronger than nighttime and occasional strong storms may bring brief periods of high winds with gusts to more than 50 miles per hour.

Growth of cool season plants begins in early to mid-March, slowing or ceasing in late June. Warm season plants begin growth about mid-May and continue to early or mid-September. Greening up of cool season plants may occur in September and October when adequate soil moisture is present.

Table 3. Representative climatic features

Climate stations used

• (1) VICTOR 4 NNE [USC00398652], Rosholt, SD

• (2) PARK RIVER [USC00326857], Park River, ND

• (3) GRAFTON [USC00323594], Grafton, ND

• (4) WHEATON [USC00218907], Wheaton, MN

• (5) AGASSIZ REFUGE [USC00210050], Grygla, MN

• (6) PEMBINA [USW00014924], Pembina, ND

Influencing water features

This Limy Subirrigated site does receive additional water from a seasonal high-water table. The high level of carbonates near the surface indicates that the soils formed with a dominantly upward direction of water movement through the soil. During the growing season, water table depths typically are 1.5 to 3.5 feet during April through June. As a result of evapotranspiration and reduced precipitation, the water table lowers to 4 to 6 feet during July and August. It commonly starts to rise again in the fall (commonly at 2.5 to 5 feet during September through November). Surface infiltration ranges from moderately slow to rapid. Permeability through the profile ranges from slow to rapid. Water loss on this site is through evapotranspiration.

Soil features

Soils associated with this site are in the Mollisol order and most are classified further as Aeric Calciaquolls; some Aquic Calciudolls are also currently included in the site (see Site Development and Testing Plan below). These soils were developed under prairie vegetation. Typically, they formed in glaciolacustrine sediments, glaciofluvial deposits, or deltaic deposits; a few formed in alluvium along drainageways.

The common features of soils in this site are a highly calcareous subsoil within a depth of 16 inches and a seasonal high-water table which contributes additional water for transpiration. This site is somewhat poorly drained; redoximorphic features typically occur at a depth between 18 and 30 inches. These soils are very deep. Since sub-surface hydrology and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) accumulation are the primary factors used in identifying this site, all textures are included. Therefore, soil physical properties associated with texture vary widely.

Soil salinity is none to slight (E.C. <8 dS/m) to a depth 16 inches in the non-saline phases; in saline phases (Salinized Sate), E.C. exceeds 8 dS/m and may exceed 16 dS/m in some areas. Sodicity is typically low or moderately low (SAR <7) to 16 inches in the non-saline state but may be >7 in saline phases. Both salinity and sodicity commonly increase with depth in moderately fine to moderately coarse textured soils.

Soil reaction typically is neutral to moderately alkaline (pH 6.6 to 8.4) in the surface layer and slightly or moderately alkaline (pH 7.4 to 8.4) below. The soil is highly calcareous within a depth 16 inches. Calcium carbonate content is typically less than 15 percent in the surface layer. It is commonly 15 to 45 percent in the highly calcareous subsoil; however, in sandy soils, this layer may have 5 to 15 percent carbonates. Calcium carbonate content decreases in the substratum.

Soils on this site are moderately susceptible to highly susceptible to wind erosion. The soil surface is stable and intact.

Major soil series correlated to the Limy Subirrigated site are Antler, Bearden, Bohnsack, Divide, Elmville, Fram, Gilby, Glyndon, Grimstad, Gunclub, Hamerly, McIntosh, Moritz, Ortonville, Ulen, Wheatville, and Wyndmere.

Access Web Soil Survey ( https://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx ) for specific local soils information.

Table 4. Representative soil features

Animal community

Animal Community – Wildlife Interpretations

Landscape

The MLRA 56A landscape is characterized by a nearly level glacial lake plain bordered on the east and west by outwash plains, till plains, gravelly beaches, and dunes. MLRA 56A is considered to have a continental climate with cold winters and hot summers, low humidity, light rainfall, and much sunshine. Extremes in temperature are common and characteristic of the MLRA. This area supports natural tall-grass prairie vegetation with bur oak, green ash, and willow growing in drainageways. This area is formed in silty and clayey lacustrine sediments from the former Glacial Lake Agassiz. Complex intermingled ecological sites create diverse grass/shrub land habitats interspersed with varying densities of linear, slope, depressional, and in-stream wetlands associated with headwater streams and tributaries to the Red River of the North. MLRA 56A is located within the boundaries of the Prairie Pothole Region and is an ecotone between the humid east and the sub-humid west regions. The primary land use is annual cropland (~80%). The Red River Valley is known for its exceptional fertility with major crops including corn, soybeans, small grains, and sugar beets.

By the mid-19th century, the majority of the Red River Valley had been converted from tall-grass prairie to annual crop production. To alleviate crop production loss from wetlands and overland flow, a system of shallow surface ditches, judicial ditches, and road ditches removes surface water in spring and during high rainfall events. The major soils are poorly drained with extensive areas of saline soils. Tile drainage systems have been or are being extensively installed throughout MLRA 56A for sub-surface field drainage to enhance annual crop production.

The east and west side of the Red River Valley formed in a complex pattern of sandy beach material, stratified inter-beach material, lacustrine silts, and lake washed glacial till. The soils vary from excessively drained on ridges to very poorly drained organic basins. Surface ditches serve to drain some of the area, although much of the area lacks adequate drainage for maximum crop production. Calcareous fens and saline seeps can occur at the base of beach ridges and result in rare plant communities. Native vegetation was mixed- and tall-grass prairie with scattered woodland and brush.

Historic Communities/Conditions within MLRA 56A:

The northern tall- and mixed-grass prairie was a disturbance-driven ecosystem with fire, herbivory, and climate functioning as the primary ecological drivers (either singly or often in combination). Frequent and expansive flooding along the Red River and its tributaries provided abundant opportunities for Native Americans to harvest wild rice. American bison roamed MLRA 56A wintering along the Red River and migrating west into MLRA 55A and 55B for parts of the season. Many species of grassland birds, small mammals, insects, reptiles, amphibians, and large herds of roaming American bison, elk, and pronghorn were historically among the inhabitants adapted to this region. Roaming herbivores, as well as several small mammal and insect species, were the primary consumers linking the grassland resources to large predators (such as the wolf and American black bear) and smaller carnivores (such as the coyote, bobcat, red fox, and raptors). Extirpated species include free-ranging American bison and gray wolf (breeding). Extinct from the region is the Rocky Mountain locust.

Present Communities/Conditions within MLRA 56A:

MLRA 56A has the most conversion to cropland of any MLRA within Region F-Northern Great Plains. European influence has impacted remaining grassland and shrubland by domestic livestock grazing, elimination of fire, removal of surface and subsurface hydrology via artificial drainage, and other anthropogenic factors influencing plant community composition and abundance.

Extensive drainage has taken place. Streams have been straightened (removing sinuosity) and riparian zones have been converted to annual crop production. These anthropogenic impacts have reduced flood water detention and retention on the landscape, increasing storm water runoff, sediment, and nutrient loading to the Red River and its tributaries. The installation of instream structures has reduced aquatic species movement within the MLRA.

Annual cropping is the main factor contributing to habitat fragmentation, reducing habitat quality for area-sensitive species. These influences fragmented the landscape, reduced, or eliminated ecological drivers (fire), and introduced exotic species including smooth brome, Kentucky bluegrass, and leafy spurge which further impacted plant and animal communities. The loss of the bison and fire as primary ecological drivers greatly influenced the character of the remaining native plant communities and the associated wildlife, moving towards a less diverse and more homogeneous landscape.

Included in this MLRA are approximately 70,000 acres of the United States Forest Service, Sheyenne National Grassland (southern portion of MLRA) with an additional 65,000 acres of intermingled privately owned land of sandy soils providing a large tract of intact tall grass prairie within the MLRA. United Fish and Wildlife Service refuges and waterfowl production areas, along with and state wildlife management areas cover approximately 67,000 acres within the MLRA. Two of three largest cities in North Dakota are located within the MLRA.

USDA conservation programs have seeded thousands of cropland acres in riparian zones to native herbaceous vegetation. Natural succession is replacing the planted native herbaceous vegetation to native woody vegetation re-establishing native wooded riparian areas on previously cropland. Most of the plantings have been along the Red River and its tributaries in the northern portions of the MLRA within the United States. These areas are privately owned and protected from annual agricultural production with perpetual conservation easements.

Some characteristic wildlife species in this area are:

Birds: Mallard, blue-winged teal, red-tailed hawk, American kestrel, ring-necked pheasant, western meadowlark, killdeer, eastern and western kingbird, American crow, common yellowthroat, downy and hairy woodpecker, clay-colored sparrow, vesper sparrow, Savannah sparrow, and brown-headed cowbird.

Mammals: Northern short-tailed shrew, white-tailed jackrabbit, snowshoe hare, Franklin’s ground squirrel, thirteen-lined ground squirrel, northern pocket gopher, plains pocket gopher, western harvest mouse, deer mouse, meadow vole, meadow jumping mouse, western jumping mouse, coyote, red fox, raccoon, American badger, striped skunk, white-tailed deer, North American beaver, and moose.

Reptiles/Amphibians: American toad, Great Plains toad, northern leopard frog, chorus frog, tree frog, tiger salamander, plains garter snake, and common garter snake.

Presence of wildlife species is often determined by ecological site characteristics including grass and forb species, hydrology, aspect, and other associated ecological sites. The home ranges of most species are usually larger than one ecological site or are dependent upon more than one ecological site for annual life requisites. Ecological sites offer different habitat elements as the annual life requisites change. Habitat improvement and creation must be conducted within the mobility limits of a known population for the species.

Insects play an important role providing ecological services for plant community development. Insects that are scavengers or aid in decomposition provide the food chain baseline sustaining the carnivorous insects feeding upon them. Many insects provide the ecological services necessary for pollination, keeping plant communities healthy and productive. Insects provide a protein food source for numerous species including grassland-nesting birds and their young. Extensive use of insecticides for specialty crops (such as potatoes, sugar beets, and other crops) has greatly reduced insects within this MLRA.

Species of Concern within MLRA 56A:

The following is a list of species considered “species of conservation priority” in the North Dakota State Wildlife Action Plan (2015); “species of greatest conservation need” in the Minnesota State Wildlife Action Plan, Conservation Focus Areas, Target Species (2015) and the South Dakota State Wildlife Action Plan (2014); and “species listed as threatened, endangered, or petitioned” under the Endangered Species Act within MLRA 56A at the time this section was developed:

Invertebrates: Arogos skipper, Assiniboia skipper, Dakota skipper, dusted skipper, Leonard’s skipper, monarch butterfly, Poweshiek skippering, red-tailed leafhopper, regal fritillary, and Uhler’s Arctic.

Birds: American kestrel, American bittern, bobolink, American white pelican, bald eagle, black-billed cuckoo, chestnut-collared longspur, Dickcissel, grasshopper sparrow, greater prairie-chicken, Henslow’s sparrow, LeConte’s sparrow, loggerhead shrike, marbled godwit, Nelson’s sparrow, northern harrier, northern pintail, red-headed woodpecker, sharp-tailed grouse, short-eared owl, Swainson’s hawk, upland sandpiper, western meadowlark, willet, Wilson’s phalarope, and yellow rail.

Mammals: Arctic shrew, big brown bat, eastern spotted skunk, gray fox, little brown bat, northern grasshopper mouse, plains pocket mouse, prairie vole, pygmy shrew, Richardson’s ground squirrel, and river otter.

Amphibians/Reptiles: Canadian toad, common snapping turtle, northern prairie skink, and plains hognose snake.

Fish: Blacknose shiner, blue sucker, burbot, chestnut lamprey, finescale dace, hornyhead chub, largescale stoneroller, logperch, northern pearl dace, northern redbelly dace, pearl dace, shortnose gar, sickle-fin chub, sliver chub, silver lamprey, trout-perch, and yellow bullhead.

Mussels: Black sandshell, creek heelsplitter, creeper, mapleleaf, pink heelsplitter, pink papershell, threeridge, and Wabash pigtoe.

Grassland Management for Wildlife in MLRA 56A:

Management activities within the community phase pathways have both short and long term positive and negative impacts on wildlife. Community phase, transitional, and restoration pathways are keys to long-term management within each State and between States. Significant inputs must occur to cross the threshold between States (e.g., State 3.0 to 2.0) requiring substantial economic inputs and management (grazing intensity, reseeding, prescribed fire, woody vegetation removal, etc.). Timing, intensity, and frequency of these inputs can have dramatic positive or negative effects on vegetative structure impacting local wildlife species’ habitats. Ranchers and other land managers must always consider the long-term beneficial effects of management on the habitat in comparison to potential short-term negative effects to individual species.

Ecological sites occur as intermingled complexes on the landscape with gradual or sometimes abrupt transitions. Rarely do ecological sites exist in large enough acreage to manage independently. Ecological sites supporting a dominance of herbaceous vegetation (Wet Meadow, Subirrigated Sands) can be located adjacent to ecological sites that support trees (Choppy Sands and Loamy Overflow).

Management of these complex ecological sites can provide a heterogeneous or a homogenous landscape. Grassland bird use reduces as the plant community transitions to a homogenous state or increases in woody vegetation. Managers need to recognize ecological sites and the complexes they occur in to properly manage the landscape. A management regime for one ecological site may negatively impact an adjacent site (e.g., alteration of a grazing regime within a Choppy Sands ecological site to encourage understory growth may encourage exotic cool- season grasses to increase or dominate an adjacent ecological site).

Life requisites and habitat deficiencies are determined for targeted species. Deficiencies need to be addressed along community phase, transitional, and restoration pathways as presented in specific state-and-transition models. Ecological sites should be managed and restored within the site’s capabilities to provide sustainable habitat. Managers also must consider habitat provided by adjacent/intermingled ecological sites for species with home ranges or life requisites that cannot be provided by one ecological site.

With populations of many grassland-nesting birds in decline, it is important to maintain these ecological sites in a 1.0 Reference State or the 2.0 Native/Invaded State. Plant communities optimal for a guild of grassland species serve as a population source where the birth rate exceeds mortality. Species may use marginal plant communities; however, these sites may function as a population sink where mortality exceeds the birth rate.

Understanding preferred vegetative stature and sensitivity to woody encroachment is necessary to manage for the specific grassland species. Various grass heights may be used for breeding, nesting, or foraging habitat. While most species use varying heights, many have a preferred vegetative stature height.

To see the chart please follow the hyperlink. (
https://efotg.sc.egov.usda.gov/references/public/ND/56A_Limy_Subirrigated_Narrative_FINAL_Ref_FSG.pdf )

Limy Subirrigated Wildlife Habitat Interpretation:

Limy Subirrigated ecological sites are somewhat poorly drained and usually found on flats and swales on lake plains, outwash plains, and delta plains. This site has a persistent water table strongly influencing vegetation production. These soils have a calcareous subsoil and are dominated by tall and mid warm-season grasses and forbs. Little bluestem is the dominant mid warm-season grass. Associated ecological sites include Saline Lowland, Loamy, Sandy, Subirrigated, Subirrigated Sands, Shallow Marsh, Sodic Subirrigated, and Wet Meadow. This complex of ecological sites provides habitat for many edge-sensitive, grassland bird species preferring medium- to tall-statured vegetation.

Limy Subirrigated habitat features and components commonly support grassland-nesting birds, notably sharp-tailed grouse, and greater prairie chicken nesting sites. Insects rely on associated forbs and grasses for survival. High insect populations provide food sources for birds and their young. Limy Subirrigated ecological sites provide quality forage for small and large herbivores. Dakota skippers use Limy Subirrigated ecological sites in MLRA 56A. Limy Subirrigated sites have the potential to support western prairie fringed orchids during high water periods when preferred Wet Meadow ecological sites are inundated for long periods.

Limy Subirrigated ecological sites may be found in four plant community states (1.0 Reference State, 2.0 Native/Invaded State, 3.0 Invaded State, 4.0 Invaded Wooded State,
5.0 Go-Back State, and 6.0 Salinized State) within a local landscape. Multiple plant community phases exist within State 1.0 and 2.0. Today, these states occur primarily in response to drought, fire, grazing, and non-use, and other anthropogenic disturbances.

Because there is no known restoration pathway from State 2.0 to State 1.0, it is important to intensively manage using tools in State 1.0 and State 2.0 Community Phase Pathways to prevent further plant community degradation along the T2A Transitional Pathway to State 3.0 or T2B Transitional Pathway to State 4.0. Native wildlife generally benefits from the heterogeneous grasslands found in States 1.0 and 2.0 that include grass and forb species of varying stature and density. As plant communities degrade within State 2.0, Kentucky bluegrass increases while native forbs are reduced. When Kentucky bluegrass exceeds 30%, the site transitions to 3.0 Invaded State. This transition results in reduced stature and increased plant community homogeneity. When adjacent and/or intermingled, ecological sites undergo the same transition, the result can be an expansive, homogenous landscape.

Success along Restoration Pathway R3A from State 3.0 to State 2.0 is very difficult and is dependent upon presence of a remnant native grass population. This concept also applies to wildlife, as the target species must either be present on adjacent State 1.0 or State 2.0 plant communities or on other ecological sites within the mobility limits of the species. Species with limited mobility, such as Dakota skippers, must exist near the plant community to utilize restored sites. Mobile species, such as grassland-nesting birds, can easily locate isolated, restored plant communities.

Plant Community Phase 3.1 shows dramatically increased homogeneity of exotic cool- season grasses and further reduction in native forbs. Reduced forb diversity limits insect populations, negatively affecting foraging opportunities for grassland-nesting birds.
Increased exotic grass litter can limit access to bare ground by nesting insects and can limit mobility by small chicks. A homogenous grassland landscape does not provide quality escape or winter cover. As a result, many species are not able to meet life requisites, especially non-migratory species.

Management along community phase, transition, or restoration pathways should focus upon attainable changes. Short- and long-term monetary costs must be evaluated against short-and long-term ecological services in creating and maintaining habitat of sufficient quality to support a sustainable population density.

1.0 Reference State

Community Phase 1.1 Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem: This plant community offers quality vegetative cover for wildlife; when found, every effort should be made to maintain this ecological site within this community phase. This phase retains high functionality through continued maintenance including prescribed grazing with adequate recovery period, as well as prescribed fire. Prescribed fire frequency maintains a grass- dominated plant community providing habitat for bird species sensitive to woody vegetation. Predominance of grass species in this community favors grazers and mixed-feeders (animals selecting grasses as well as forbs and shrubs). The structural diversity provides habitat for a wide array of migratory and resident birds.

Invertebrates: Insects play a role in maintaining the forb community and provide a forage base for grassland birds, reptiles, and rodents. Ecological services, historically provided by bison, are simulated by domestic livestock. These services include putting plant material and dung in contact with mineral soil to be used by lower trophic level consumers (such as invertebrate decomposers, scavengers, shredders, predators, herbivores, dung beetles, and fungal-feeders).

Dakota skippers prefer this site due to host plants (such as little bluestem, big bluestem, and harebell). Arogos skippers may use these sites since it contains host plants, such as big bluestem and little bluestem, and they can nectar on other species (such as blacksamson echinacea, black-eyed Susan, and various thistles). Regal fritillary can make use of violet species and other nectar producing forbs on this site. Monarch butterfly may use flowering forbs on this site; however, few milkweed species are found on this site to support caterpillar food. Bumblebees and other native bees utilize forbs as a nectar source; however, bare ground and nesting sites are limited due to the dominance of sod-forming grasses.

Birds: This plant community provides quality nesting, foraging, and escape habitats favored by mid- to tallgrass-nesting birds. To limit litter accumulations, prescribed fire maintains a grass-dominated plant community providing habitat for bird species sensitive to woody vegetation. This plant community does not provide suitable areas for sharp-tailed grouse or greater prairie chicken lek sites but does provide quality nesting, brood-rearing, and escape habitat. This site provides good hunting opportunities for grassland raptors.

Mammals: The diversity of grasses and forbs provide high nutrition levels for small and large herbivores. Tall- to mid-statured vegetation provides suitable food, thermal, protective, and escape cover for small and large herbivores.

Amphibians and Reptiles: This ecological site can provide habitat for the northern leopard frog and Canadian toad since this site is frequently found in close proximity to Wet Meadow ecological sites. Although this site can provide habitat for the northern prairie skink and plains hog-nosed snake, this plant community may be too dense for these two species.

Fish and Mussels: This ecological site is not typically adjacent to streams, rivers, or water bodies. This site receives limited run-on hydrology from adjacent ecological sites (Loamy, Sandy) and provides hydrology to Subirrigated ecological sites which can be adjacent to Wet Meadow or Shallow Marsh ecological sites. Management on Limy Subirrigated sites, in conjunction with neighboring run-on sites, will have an indirect effect on aquatic species in streams and/or tributaries receiving water from Limy Subirrigated and adjacent sites. Optimum hydrological function and nutrient cycling limit potential for sediment yield and nutrient loading to the adjacent aquatic ecosystems from Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 1.2 Forbs/Little Blue Stem-Big Bluestem-Indiangrass: This plant community phase occurs after a spring burn followed by intense grazing. Showy forbs become evident but remain a minor component.

Invertebrates: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, increases in forbs provide increased pollen and nectar sources for insects.

Birds: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1

2.0 Native/Invaded State

Community Phase 2.1 Indiangrass-Big Bluestem-Little Bluestem: This plant community develops through Transition Pathway T1A due to changes in management and the presence of exotic, cool-season grasses. The threshold between States 1.0 and 2.0 is crossed when Kentucky bluegrass, quackgrass, and redtop become established. This plant community phase has a very similar appearance and function to the Plant Community 1.1, except that it has a minor amount of cool-season exotic grasses and forbs. This phase functions at a high level for native wildlife; therefore, managers should consider management within the State 2.0 Community Phase Pathways to avoid transitioning to States 3.0 and 4.0.

Invertebrates: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. Birds: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.2 Little bluestem-Sideoats Grama/Forbs//Exotic Cool-Season Grasses: Heavy grazing without adequate recovery periods (along Community Phase Pathway 2.1A) damages tall, warm-season grasses. The reduction of vigor of warm-season grasses allow for the increase in Kentucky bluegrass, quackgrass, and redtop. This community phase is often found in a mosaic in the pasture in an overgrazed/undergrazed pattern typical of properly stocked pastures grazed season-long. Some areas will be impacted by heavy use while other areas will have a build-up of litter and a high amount of plant decadence. This mosaic of grazed and ungrazed areas provides a short to tall vegetative stature.

Invertebrates: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1 dependent upon degree of exotic grass invasion. Invertebrates will respond to the amount of over-utilized vs. under-utilized area and the resultant vegetative stature. Reduced litter amounts on the over- utilized area will have an increase in bare ground which favors ground nesting insects. Under-utilized areas will have a decrease in bare ground for ground-nesting insects but may have more pollen and nectar producing forbs.

Birds: Depending on the patch size of overgrazed vs. undergrazed areas, grassland nesting birds preferring short/mid-vegetative stature may prefer this plant community phase.

Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Community Phase 2.3 Tall Warm Season Grasses-Little Bluestem/Exotic Cool-Season Grasses: Removal of disturbances, such as grazing and fire (via Community Phase Pathway 2.1B), allows for the increase in Kentucky bluegrass. Kentucky bluegrass is approaching the 30 percent threshold found in the invade State 4.0. Every effort should be made by managers to avoid reaching the 40 percent Kentucky bluegrass threshold by implementing and maintaining a prescribed grazing system and introducing prescribed fire.

Invertebrates: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 2.2. Bare ground is less than 1%, limiting use by ground nesting bee species.

Birds: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, as this community phase approaches the 40 percent Kentucky bluegrass threshold, grassland nesting bird species that favor mid-grass statured vegetation increase.

Mammals: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1. However, the increase of Kentucky bluegrass reduces the quality of thermal and escape cover.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

3.0 Invaded State

Community Phase 3.1 Exotic Cool-Season Grasses/Exotic Forbs/Goldenrod: Heavy grazing without adequate recovery periods, extended periods of non-use, or cropland allowed to “go- back” can cause Community Phase 4.1 to establish. Kentucky bluegrass will dominate the site. Potential use by wildlife will be dependent upon management. Non-use will result in extensive areas of Kentucky bluegrass litter accumulation and have the effect of residual cover flopping. Heavy grazing without adequate recovery periods will result in little, if any, residual cover.

Community Phase 4.1 can also result (via Transition Pathway T4A from Community Phase 3.1) when shrubs are removed which results in a Kentucky bluegrass dominated plant community. Management following shrub removal will determine the quality of wildlife habitat. Extensive management using prescribed grazing, herbicide treatments, range seedings, and prescribed fire will be needed to move this plant community to State 2.0 (via Restoration Pathway R4A).

Invertebrates: Litter amounts will vary in this community phase. Non-native forbs dominate with goldenrods and Cuman ragweed also present. A reliable amount of season-long pollen and nectar sources will not be present. Intense grazing will reduce litter amounts and provide some bare ground for ground nesting insects. Non-use will increase litter, reduce sites for ground nesting pollinators, and limit pollen and nectar availability. Overall, this community phase will not favor pollinating species in either management scenario (heavy use or non-use). This plant community will not provide life requisites for Dakota skippers or Regal fritillary, but it may support monarch butterfly’s depending on availability of milkweed.

Birds: Heavy grazing will favor short-grass bird species. Short- to mid-grass bird species will also be favored with the non-use management scenario. Lack of pollinator forb species limits invertebrate use, reducing protein sources for food. This plant community does not provide suitable areas for lek sites or for brood or escape cover for sharp-tailed grouse or greater prairie chicken. This site provides hunting opportunities for grassland raptors.

Mammals: Lacking residual cover under the over-grazing management scenario, this short- statured community provides limited food, thermal, protective, and escape cover for small herbivores. Under the non-use management scenario, exotic cool-season grasses will provide residual cover for small mammals (such as mice, ground squirrels, and voles). Use by large mammals will be limited under either management scenario.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Kentucky bluegrass litter accumulations may become too heavy for northern prairie skink and plains hog-nose snake under the non-use scenario. Under heavy grazing, cover for amphibians and reptiles can be eliminated.

Fish and Mussels: When grazed heavily, runoff increases and is the highest of any plant community phase on this ecological site - increasing run-off to adjacent ecological sites and into neighboring water bodies. Nutrient cycling is severely limited to the rooting depth of the Kentucky bluegrass increasing nutrient loading to neighboring water bodies.

4.0 Invaded Wooded State

Community Phase 4.1 Shrubs/Exotic Cool-Season Grasses/Forbs: The elimination of fire via Transitional Pathway T2B allows for shrubs (such as western snowberry, spirea, and willow species) to dominate this site. Shade-tolerant Kentucky bluegrass dominates the understory and warm-season, native grasses may still be present but with reduced vigor and numbers not allowing for recovery without herbicide and mechanical brush control (via Restoration Pathway R3A).

Invertebrates: The invasion of woody vegetation reduces habitat for all species of concern within MLRA 56A. Season-long pollen and nectar availability is reduced in this plant community. The woody shrub component (western snowberry, willow, and meadowsweet) will provide some early season bloom period. Forbs, such a goldenrod, will provide late season pollen and nectar opportunities. Overall, pollinator plant diversity is low, limiting season-long nectar and pollen production.

Birds: Grassland nesting birds sensitive to woody vegetation encroachment will discontinue use of this community phase. Bird species preferring woodland edge may begin to use this site, especially where willow species dominate.

Mammals: Shrubs will provide increased year-round cover and browse for white-tailed deer, moose and elk. Mammals, such as porcupines, that prefer woody habitat will use this site.

Amphibians and Reptiles: This site no longer provides life requisites for the northern prairie skink and plains hog-nosed snake due to the dominance of shrubs.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1.

5.0 Go-Back State

Community Phase 5.1 Annual/Pioneer Perennial/Exotics: These plant communities are the result of severe soil disturbance (such as cropping, recreational activity, or concentrated livestock activity for a prolonged time). Following cessation of disturbances, the resulting plant community is dominated by early pioneer annual and perennial plant species. Plant species composition and production are highly variable. Weedy plants can provide pollinator habitat along with spring and summer cover for many mammals and birds, and their young. Dense weed cover can keep soils moist, increasing the presence of insects. Milkweed can be an early pioneering pollinator species and host plant for monarch butterflies. Tall stature provided by some annual weeds offers thermal cover and seeds throughout winter for deer, small mammals, and over-wintering birds. The response by wildlife species will be dependent upon plant community composition, vegetative stature, patch size, and management activities (such as prescribed grazing, burning, inter-seeding, haying, or noxious weed control).

Successful restoration of native species along Transition Pathway R5A can result in a native grass and forb community in Native/Invaded State 2.0. Over time (with no management), the exotic cool-season perennial grasses (Kentucky bluegrass, smooth brome, and/or quackgrass) generally become established and dominate the community. Failed range planting, via Transition Pathway R5B, can result in an invaded plant community Invaded State 3.0.

6.0 Salinized State

Community Phase 6.1 Foxtail Barley/Saltgrass/Bare Ground: Multiyear drought, with heavy grazing, with lack of recovery periods gives foxtail barley and other salt tolerant grasses a competitive edge. This plant community is adapted to increased salinity and is relatively stable. No known restoration pathway or technology currently exists to restore this site.

Invertebrates: Drought coupled with heavy continuous grazing limits production of forbs and nectar and pollen availability. Salinity and wetness limits ground nesting invertebrate habitat.

Birds: Structural diversity and density reduce habitat for a wide array of migratory and resident birds. Heavy continuous grazing with lack of recovery periods gives foxtail barley, inland saltgrass, and other salt tolerant grasses a competitive edge reducing density and stature of grasses. Grassland nesting birds, favoring short statured structure, may use this plant community. Dependent upon water depth and duration, this plant community may be attractive to various shorebirds.

Mammals: This site is no longer favored by large herbivores and provides limited life requests for small herbivores.

Amphibians and Reptiles: Due to potential high salinity levels and wetness, this plant community does not provide suitable habitat for many amphibians and reptiles except during periods of above normal precipitation reducing the effects of high salinity levels. Ponded water during above average precipitation events will provide foraging habitat for the northern leopard frog and Canadian toad, depending upon salinity levels. Ponded water will not be deep enough to provide breeding habitat.

Fish and Mussels: Provides similar life requisites as Community Phase 1.1; however, increased bare ground will yield additional sediment to nearby water bodies.

Animal Community – Grazing Interpretations

This site is well adapted to managed grazing by domestic livestock. The predominance of herbaceous plants across all plant community phases best lends these sites to grazing by cattle, but other domestic grazers with differing diet preferences may also be a consideration depending upon management objectives. Often, the current plant community does not entirely match any particular plant community (as described in the ecological site description). Because of this, a resource inventory is necessary to document plant composition and production. Proper interpretation of this inventory data will permit the establishment of a safe, initial stocking rate for the type and class of animals and level of grazing management. More accurate stocking rate estimates should eventually be calculated using actual stocking rate information and monitoring data.

NRCS defines prescribed grazing as “managing the harvest of vegetation with grazing and/or browsing animals with the intent to achieve specific ecological, economic, and management objectives”. As used in this site description, the term ‘prescribed grazing’ is intended to include multiple grazing management systems (e.g., rotational grazing, twice-over grazing, conservation grazing, targeted grazing, etc.) provided that, whatever management system is implemented, it meets the intent of prescribed grazing definition.

The basic grazing prescription addresses balancing forage demand (quality and quantity) with available forage, varying grazing and deferment periods from year-to-year, matching recovery/deferment periods to growing conditions when pastures are grazed more than once in a growing season, implementation of a contingency (e.g., drought) plan, and a monitoring plan. When the management goal is to facilitate change from one plant community phase or state to another, then the prescription needs to be designed to shift the competitive advantage to favor the native grass and forb species.

Grazing levels are referenced within the plant community narratives and pathways in reference to prescribed grazing management. Degree of utilization is defined as the proportion of the current year’s forage production that is consumed and/or destroyed by grazing animals (may refer to a single plant species or a portion or all the vegetation). Grazing utilization is classified as slight, moderate, full, close, and severe (see the following table for description of each grazing use category). The following utilization levels are also described in the Ranchers Guide to Grassland Management IV. Utilization levels are determined by using the landscape appearance method as outlined in the Interagency Technical Reference “Utilization Studies and Residual Measurements” 1734-3.

Utilization Level % Use Description

Slight (Light) 0-20 Appears practically undisturbed when viewed obliquely. Only choice areas and forage utilized.

Moderate 20-40 Almost all of accessible range shows grazing. Little or no use of poor forage. Little evidence of trailing to grazing.

Full 40-60 All fully accessible areas are grazed. The major sites have key forage species properly utilized (about half taken, half left). Points of concentration with overuse limited to 5 to 10 percent of accessible area.

Close (Heavy) 60-80 All accessible range plainly shows use and major sections closely cropped. Livestock forced to use less desirable forage, considering seasonal preference.

Severe > 80 Key forage species completely used. Low-value forages are dominant.

Hydrological functions

The duration of the seasonal high-water table within the rooting zone is the principal factor in herbage production on this site. The site is dominated by soils in hydrologic groups B and C. Infiltration varies from slow to rapid; runoff potential varies from negligible to medium for this site depending on depending on hydrologic group, surface texture, slope percent, slope shape, and ground cover. In many cases, areas with greater than 75% ground cover have the greatest potential for high infiltration and lower runoff. An exception would be where shortgrasses form a dense sod and dominate the site. Areas where ground cover is less than 50% have the greatest potential to have reduced infiltration and higher runoff (refer to Section 4, NRCS National Engineering Handbook for runoff quantities and hydrologic curves).

Hydrological manipulation (surface or tile drainage, pumping, surface water diversion, etc.) modifies this ecological site. Under natural conditions, this ecological site includes a wide range of soil textures; after hydrologic manipulation, soil texture often becomes a more significant factor in vegetative response. If the degree of manipulation allows soil texture to influence the plant community or if altered soil properties (i.e., salinization or the addition of fill material) results in vegetation change, a transition to a completely different ecological site may have occurred. The transition to an altogether different ecological site will depend upon severity of altered hydrology, soil properties, and corresponding vegetation. Due to the many variables (e.g., hydrology, type and success of drainage, etc.), impacts to the ecological site will be site-specific. As a result, each situation will require field investigation to determine what, if any, change in ecological site designation is necessary and proceed accordingly.

Without restoring hydrologic function (which may include range seeding), managers need to reference state and transition models within those sites. Hydrology will need to be fully restored in the associated Wet Meadow and Shallow Marsh ecological sites in order for these sites to properly function. It is recommended that managers review the appropriate State and Transition Models prior to wetland restoration.

Recreational uses

Hunting and Bird Watching: The United States Fish and Wildlife Service manages approximately 4,000 acres of National Wildlife Refuges for hiking and bird watching and approximately 24,000 acres of Waterfowl Production Areas for public hunting, hiking, and bird watching. States within MLRA 56A manage approximately 39,000 acres of wildlife management areas for multiple use including hunting, fishing, hiking, birdwatching, berry picking, and other non-motorized uses. Of the 39,000 acres, approximately 21,400 are in Minnesota with approximately 16,000 acres in North Dakota and approximately 1,700 acres in South Dakota.

In North Dakota, the United States Forest Service manages 70,000 acres on the Sheyenne National Grassland for multiple uses including camping, hunting, photography, backpacking birdwatching, biking, horseback riding, and other non-motorized recreation. The Sheyenne National Grassland is also managed for livestock grazing. The Choppy Sands and Sands ecological sites dominate the Grassland. It is the only National Grassland in the tallgrass prairie region of the United States. The grassland provides habitat for greater prairie chicken, as well as several other sensitive species (such as the Dakota skipper and regal fritillary). It also contains one of largest populations of the western prairie fringed orchid which is listed as a threatened species by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service.

Fishing: Approximately 20 lakes are managed for public fishing MLRA 56A. Most of these lakes offer boat docks and ramps. These lakes contain various sport fish including walleye, northern pike, yellow perch, crappie, and bluegill. The Red River runs from south to north through the center of the MLRA. The Red River is best known for channel catfish but also has walleye, sauger, northern pike, and smallmouth bass. The Red River is 550 miles long from its source in the southern end of the MLRA near Breckenridge, Minnesota to Lake Winnipeg in Manitoba, Canada. Between North Dakota and Minnesota, there are 32 public access points along the Red River with 18 having boat ramps.

Camping: Four state parks or recreation areas provide of modern and primitive camping facilities. Minnesota hosts the Buffalo River State Park and Red River State Park. North Dakota hosts the Icelandic State Park and Turtle River State Park. These Parks provide hiking, biking, birding, canoeing, and wildlife viewing opportunities. Many local parks and private parks provide modern and primitive camping opportunities. Limited primitive camping is also available on North Dakota Game and Fish Department Wildlife Management Areas.

Hiking/Biking/Horseback Riding: Hiking is permitted on most state and federally owned lands. Developed hiking and biking trails can be found the four state parks. The Grand Forks Greenway has over 22 miles of trails while municipalities along the Red River have extensive walking and hiking trails. A 30-mile segment of the North Country National Scenic Trail leads hikers through the Sheyenne National Grassland’s unique landforms and plant communities. This trail has three trailheads along its route; it is a graveled, marked trail. The entire North Country National Scenic Trail stretches from Crown Point, New York to Lake Sakakawea near Garrison, North Dakota.

Canoeing/Kayaking: The Red River has six designated canoe/kayaking trails. Public access, with limited rentals, is available at these segments. Sheyenne River Water Trail has a segment within the MLRA Sheyenne National Grasslands. Canoe/kayak rentals are available at Icelandic State Park.

Wood products

No appreciable wood products are present on the site.

Other products

Seed harvest of native plant species can provide additional income on this site.

Other information

• Further investigation is need on the inclusion of moderately well drained Aquic Calciudolls (Glyndon taxadjunct, McIntosh, and Ortonville soils) in this site. Although the water table may be as shallow as 2 feet during the early spring, it typically is deeper than 36 inches during April-June and deeper than 4.5 feet during mid-summer. Plant communities on these soils may be more similar to the Thin Loamy site or be a transition community between Limy Subirrigated and Thin Loamy. The ‘Wheatville, dry’ component is also an Aquic Calciudoll in the MLRA with the same water table data but has been linked to the Thin Loamy site. MLRA map units to investigate are:
o Glyndon loam, dry, 2 to 6 percent slopes (map unit 1tbnd)
o Glyndon silt loam, dry, 2 to 6 percent slopes (map unit 2pg3j)
o McIntosh silt loam, 0 to 2 percent slopes (map unit 2ql2b)
o McIntosh-Mustinka complex, 0 to 2 percent slopes (map unit 2ql2c)
o Ortonville silt loam, lacustrine, 2 to 6 percent slopes (map unit 1vv7f)
• Further investigation in need on areas of this site associated with drainageways. Divide soils occur on some low terraces of drainageways. Moritz soils occur along the outer edges of some channeled drainageways. The impact of occasional flooding on these areas needs evaluation.
• Further investigate the possibility of a restoration or transition from 6.0 Salinization State to another State.
• Further investigation may be needed on the ‘Aspen Parkland’ phase of the Grimstad soil map unit included in this site. The presence of aspen is not discussed in the Limy Subirrigated ES narratives. This map unit occurs in Clay, Grant, Otter Tail, and Wilkin counties in Minnesota: Grimstad fine sandy loam, 0 to 2 percent slopes, aspen parkland (map unit prn8). The extent of this map unit is nearly 20,000 acres in these counties. If aspen only occurs on this site in this one map unit, some note to that effect should probably be added to the narrative.
• Further investigation is needed on the wide range of soil textures and associated properties and their relationship to hydrology/plant dynamics.
• Further evaluation and refinement of the State-and-Transition model may be needed to identify disturbance driven dynamics. Additional states and/or phases may be required to address grazing response.
• Further documentation may be needed for plant communities in all states. Plant data has been collected in previous range-site investigations, including clipping data; however, this data needs review. If geo-referenced sites meeting Tier 3 standards for either vegetative or soil data are not available, representative sites will be selected for further investigation.
• Site concepts will be refined as the above noted investigations are completed.
• The long-term goal is to complete an approved, correlated Ecological Site Description as defined by the National Ecological Site Handbook.
• NASIS revisions needed:
o During the recently completed Ecological Site Description update, saline phases of Aeric Calciaquolls were reassigned from Saline Lowland to the Salinized State of Limy Subirrigated. Numerous components of Antler, Bearden, Elmville, Gilby, Glyndon, Hamerly, Ulen, Wheatville, and Wyndmere need to be relinked, as well as three components of Moritz.
o One major component of Bearden (Bearden-Lamoure complex) is linked to Loamy ES; this needs to be corrected to Limy Subirrigated.

This ESD is the best available knowledge. The site concept and species composition table have been used in the field and tested for more than five years. It is expected that as additional information becomes available revisions may be required.

Inventory data references

Information presented here has been derived from NRCS and other federal/state agency clipping and inventory data. Also, field knowledge of range-trained personnel was used. All descriptions were peer reviewed and/or field-tested by various private, state and federal agency specialists.

Those involved in developing this site description include: Stan Boltz, NRCS State Rangeland Management Specialist; Bernadette Braun, USFS Rangeland Management Specialist; Stacey Swenson, USFS Rangeland Management Specialist; Jeff Printz, NRCS State Rangeland Management Specialist; Dr. Kevin Sedivec, Extension Rangeland Management Specialist; Dr. Shawn Dekeyser, North Dakota State University; Rob Self, The Nature Conservancy; Lee Voigt, NRCS Area Rangeland Management Specialist; Dr. Mark Gonzales, USFS Hydrologist; David Dewald, NRCS State Biologist; Keith Anderson, NRCS Soil Scientist, Fred Aziz; NRCS Area Resource Soil Scientist; and Steve Sieler, NRCS Soil Scientist.

Other references

Bakker, K.K. 2003. The effect of woody vegetation on grassland nesting birds: an annotated bibliography. The Proceedings of the South Dakota Academy of Science 82:119-141.

Barker, W.T. and W. C. Whitman. 1988. Vegetation of the northern great plains. Rangelands 10(6): 266-272.

Bluemle. J.P. 2016. North Dakota’s Geologic Legacy. North Dakota State University Press. 382 pages.

Briske, D.D. (editor). 2017. Rangeland Systems – Processes, Management, and Challenges. Springer Series on Environmental Management. 661 pages.

Burgess, R.L. 1965. A study of plant succession in the sandhills of southeastern North Dakota. Proceedings ND Academy of Science 19:62-80

DeKeyser, E.S., G. Clambey, K. Krabbenhoft, and J. Ostendorf. 2009. Are changes in species composition on central North Dakota rangelands due to non-use management? Rangelands 31:16- 19

Dix, R.L. and F.E. Smeins. 1967. The prairie, meadow, and marsh vegetation of Nelson County, North Dakota. Canadian Journal of Botany 45:21-57.

Dornbusch, M.J., R.F. Limb, and C.K. Gasch. 2018. Facilitation of an exotic grass through nitrogen enrichment by an exotic legume. Rangeland Ecology & Management 71:691-694.

Dyke, S.R., S.K. Johnson, and P.T. Isakson. 2015. North Dakota State Wildlife Action Plan. North Dakota Game and Fish Department, Bismarck, ND. 468 pages.

Ehrenfeld, Joan G. 2002. Effects of exotic plant invasions on soil nutrient cycling processes. Ecosystems 6:503-523. Endangered and threatened wildlife and plants; designation of critical habitat for the Dakota skipper and Poweshiek skipperling; Vol. 79 No. Final Rule October 1, 2015, 50 CFR Part 17.

Ereth, C., J. Hendrickson, D. Kirby, E. DeKeyser, K. Sedevic, and M. West. Controlling Kentucky bluegrass with herbicide and burning is influenced by invasion level. Invasive Plant Science and Management 10: 80-89.

Ewing, J. 1924. Plant Succession on the Brush Prairie in Northwestern Minnesota. Journal of Ecology 12:228-266.

Gilgert, W. and S. Zack. 2010. Integrating multiple ecosystem services introduction ecological site descriptions. Rangelands: 32:49-54.

Grant, T.A. and R.K. Murphy. 2005. Changes on woodland cover on prairie refuges in North Dakota, USA. Natural Areas Journal 25:359-368.

Heitschmidt, R. K., K. D. Klement, and M. R. Haferkamp. 2005. Interactive effects of drought and grazing on northern great plains rangelands. Rangeland Ecology and Management 58:11-19.

Hendrickson, J.R., P. S. Johnson, M. A. Liebig, K. K. Sedivec, and G. A. Halvorson. 2016. Use of ecological sites in managing wildlife and livestock: an example with prairie dogs. Rangelands

Hendrickson, J.R., S.L. Kronberg, and E.J. Scholljegerdes. 2020. Can targeted grazing reduce abundance of invasive perennial grass (Kentucky Bluegrass) on native mixed-grass prairie? Rangeland Ecology and Management, 73:547-551.

Higgins, K.F. 1984. Lightning fires in grasslands in North Dakota and in pine-savanna lands in nearby South Dakota and Montana. J. Range Manage. 37:100-103.

Higgins, K.F. 1986. Interpretation and compendium of historical fire accounts in the northern great plains. United States Department of Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. Resource Publication 161. 39 pages.

Higgins, K.F., A.D. Kruse, and J.L. Piehl. 1989. Effects of fire in the Northern Great Plains. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and Cooperative Extension Service South, Dakota State University. Extension Circular 761. 48 pages.

High Plains Regional Climate Center, University of Nebraska, 830728 Chase Hall, Lincoln, NE 68583-0728. (http://hprcc.unl.edu)

Johnson, Sandra. 2015. Reptiles and Amphibians of North Dakota. North Dakota Game and Fish Department. 64 pages.

Jordan, N. R., D.L. Larson, and S.C. Huerd. 2008. Soil modification by invasive plants: effects on native and invasive species of mixed-grass prairies. Biological Invasions 10:177-190.

Mader, E., M. Shepherd, M. Vaughan, and S.H. Black. 2011. Attracting native pollinators: protecting North America's bees and butterflies. Accessed at https://xerces.org, May 1, 2017.

Minnesota Department of Natural Resources. 2005. Field guide to the native plant communities of Minnesota – the prairie parkland and tallgrass aspen parklands provinces. Minnesota DNR.

Nelson, W.T. 1986. Grassland habitat type classification of the Sheyenne National Grasslands of southeastern North Dakota. M.S. thesis. North Dakota State University. 139 pages.

North Dakota Division of Tourism, Accessed on February 25, 2019. Available at https://www.ndtourism.com/sports-recreation

North Dakota Parks and Recreation Department, Accessed on February 25, 2019. Available at http://www.parkrec.nd.gov/recreationareas/recreationareas.html

Palit, R., G. and E.S. DeKeyser. 2022. Impacts and drivers of smooth brome (Bromus inermis Leyes.) invasion in native ecosystems. Plants: 10,3390. https://www.mdpi.com/2223- 7747/11/10/1340

Palit, R., G. Gramig, and E.S. DeKeyser. 2021. Kentucky bluegrass invasion in the Northern Great Plains and prospective management approaches to mitigate its spread. Plants: 10,817. https://doi.org/10.3390/plants10040817

Peterson, K. 2013. Remediation of Sand Dune Blowouts Along Pipeline Rights of Ways. M.S. thesis. University of New Mexico, Albuquerque. https://digitalrepository.unm.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1015&context=geog_etds

Printz, J.L. and J.R. Hendrickson. 2015. Impacts of Kentucky bluegrass Invasion (Poa pratensis) on Ecological Processes in the Northern Great Plains. Rangelands 37(6):226-232.

Reeves, J.L., J.D. Derner, M.A. Sanderson, J.R. Hendrickson, S.L. Kronberg, M.K. Petersen, and L.T. Vermeire. 2014. Seasonal weather influences on yearling beef steer production in C3- dominated Northern Great Plains rangeland. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 183:110- 117.

Ralston, R.D., and R.L. Dix. 1966. Green herbage production of native grasslands in the Red River Valley-1965. Proceedings ND Academy of Science 20:57-66.

Royer, R. A., 2003. Butterflies of North Dakota: An Atlas and Guide. Minot State University, Minot, ND.

Seabloom, R. 2020. Mammals of North Dakota. North Dakota Institute for Regional Studies, Fargo, ND. 470 pages.

Sedivec, K.D., J.L. Printz. 2014. Ranchers Guide to Grassland Management IV. NDSU Extension Service publication R1707.

Severson, K. E. and C. Hull Sieg. 2006. The Nature of Eastern North Dakota: Pre-1880 Historical Ecology. North Dakota Institute for Regional Studies.

South Dakota Dept. of Game, Fish and Parks. 2014. South Dakota Wildlife Action Plan. Wildlife Division Report 2014-03.

Spaeth, K.E., Hayek, M.A., Toledo, D., and Hendrickson, J. 2019. Cool Season Grass Impacts on Native Mixedgrass Prairie Species in the Norther Great Plains. America’s Grassland Conference: Working Across Boundaries. The Fifth Biennial Conference on the Conservation of America’s Grasslands. Bismarck, ND. 20-22 August.

Swingen, M., R, M. Walker, R. Baker, G. Nordquist, T. Catton, K. Kirschbaum, B. Dirks, and N. Dietz. 2018. Northern Long-eared Bat Roost Tree Characteristics 2015-2017. Natural Research Institute, University of Minnesota Duluth, Technical Report NRRI/TR-2018/41, 88p.

Tidwell, D., D.T. Fogarty, and J.R. Weir. 2021. Woody encroachment in grasslands, a guide for understanding risk and vulnerability. Oklahoma State University, Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Service publication E-1054. 32 pages.

Toledo, D., M. Sanderson, K. Spaeth, J. Hendrickson, and J. Printz. 2014. Extent of Kentucky bluegrass and its effect on native plant species diversity and ecosystem services in the northern great plains of the United State. Invasive Plant Science and Management 7(4): 543-552.

USDA, NRCS. 2021. National Range and Pasture Handbook, (https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detailfull/national/landuse/rangepasture/?cid=stelprdb1 043084)

USDA, NRCS. 2006. Land Resource Regions and Major Land Resource Areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture Handbook 296.

USDA, NRCS. National Soil Information System, 100 Centennial Mall North, Room 152, Lincoln, NE 68508-3866.
(https://www.nrcs.usda.gov/wps/portal/nrcs/detail/soils/survey/tools/?cid=nrcs142p2_053552)

USDA, NRCS. National Water & Climate Center, 1201 NE Lloyd Blvd, Suite 802, Portland, OR 97232-1274. (https://www.wcc.nrcs.usda.gov/)

USDA, NRCS. 2001. The PLANTS Database, Version 3.1 (http://plants.usda.gov). National Plant Data Center, Baton Rouge, LA 70874-4490 USA.

USDA, NRCS, Various Published Soil Surveys.

USDI BLM.1999. Utilization Studies and Residual Measurements. Interagency Technical Reference 1734-3.

Vinton, M.A. and E.M. Goergen. 2006. Plant-soil feedbacks contribute to the persistence of Bromus inermis in tallgrass prairie. Ecosystems 9: 967-976.

Whitman, W.H., H. Hanson, and R. Peterson. 1943. Relation of drought and grazing to North Dakota range lands. North Dakota Agricultural Experimentation Bulletin 340.

Contributors

Stan Boltz, NRCS State Rangeland Management Specialist; Bernadette Braun, USFS Rangeland Management Specialist; Stacey Swenson, USFS Rangeland Management Specialist;
Rob Self, The Nature Conservancy; Lee Voigt, NRCS Area Rangeland Management Specialist; Dr. Mark Gonzales, USFS Hydrologist; David Dewald, NRCS State Biologist;
Jeff Printz, NRCS State Rangeland Management Specialist; Dr. Kevin Sedivec, Extension Rangeland Management Specialist; Dr. Shawn Dekeyser, North Dakota State University;
Keith Anderson, NRCS Soil Scientist, Fred Aziz; NRCS Area Resource Soil Scientist; and Steve Sieler, NRCS Soil Scientist.
ND NRCS: Keith Anderson, Fred Aziz, Stan Boltz, David Dewald, Jonathan Fettig, Alan Gulsvig, Mark Hayek, Chuck Lura, Jeff Printz, Steve Sieler, Lee Voigt, and Hal Weiser

Approval

Suzanne Mayne-Kinney, 5/21/2025

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge Bernadette Braun, Dr. Mark Gonzales, Stacy Swenson, USFS; and Rob Self, The Nature Conservancy; for their helpful comments and suggestions.