Natural Resources
Conservation Service

Ecological site PX136X00X650

Low Terraces and Drains, Rare Inundation

Last updated: 5/02/2025
Accessed: 05/19/2025

Home / Esd catalog / MLRA 136X / Ecological site PX136X00X650

USC

Metric

General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 136X–Southern Piedmont

This MLRA is on a large piedmont underlain by metamorphic and igneous bedrock. It stretches from north-central Virginia to east-central Alabama, running parallel to the Appalachian highlands to the northwest and the Atlantic coast to the southeast.

MLRA 136 has only subtle climatic differences with MLRA 148 (Northern Piedmont), with which it shares a common geologic origin. This adjacent MLRA sits to the north. Along the fall line, it shares a boundary with MLRA 133A (Southern Coastal Plain), MLRA 137 (Carolina and Georgia Sand Hills), and 133C (Gulf Coastal Plain). Here, unconsolidated Coastal Plain sediments intersect the much older Piedmont bedrock. Along it's northwestern boundary, it sits adjacent to MLRAs 130B (Southern Blue Ridge), 130A (Northern Blue Ridge), and 128 (Southern Appalachian Ridges and Valleys). These MLRAs are distinguished from the Southern Piedmont by topographic and elevational differences, as well as differences in the age, origin, and degree of metamorphism of the underlying bedrock.

Five states are intersected by the MLRA, including North Carolina (29 percent), Georgia (27 percent), Virginia (20 percent), South Carolina (17 percent), and Alabama (7 percent). The MLRA extent makes up about 63,720 square miles (165,034 square kilometers).

MLRA PHYSIOGRAPHY
The landscape is generally rolling to hilly, with a well-defined drainage pattern. Streams have dissected the original Piedmont plateau, forming narrow ridgetops, somewhat broad interfluves, and short, steep side slopes adjacent to the streams and drainageways. With some exceptions, the valley floors are generally narrow and make up about 10 percent or less of the land area. The associated stream terraces are generally small and of minor extent.

The landscape is moderately dissected overall, with isolated erosional remnants (monadnocks) and other areas of high topographic relief interspersed. Over most of the MLRA, elevation ranges from approximately 325 to 1,315 feet (100 to 400 meters), with elevations generally increasing toward the Appalachian Highlands, in the upper Piedmont, and decreasing toward the Coastal Plain, in the lower Piedmont.

The major rivers that cross this area en route to the ocean include, from north to south, the James, Roanoke, Cape Fear, Savannah, Altamaha, Chattahoochee, and Alabama Rivers. These rivers typically originate within the Piedmont or in the Blue Ridge. They flow east and south across the Coastal Plain and empty into the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of America.

MLRA GEOLOGY
Precambrian and Paleozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks underlie almost all of this MLRA. The dominant metamorphic rock types include gneiss, schist, slate, argillite, and phyllite, among others. Dominant igneous rock types include granite and other related felsic crystalline rocks. Mafic intrusive rocks, including gabbro, diabase, amphibolite, and other dark colored rocks, underlie a minority of the upland landscape. These mafic intrusions crop out in the form of dikes and sills, and often weather to produce soils high in base cations.

The Carolina Slate Belt runs lengthwise through the east-central part of the MLRA, in southern Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and the eastern-most part of the Georgia Piedmont. This region is underlain by fine-grained metasedimentary and metavolcanic rock, which generally weathers to produce soils high in silt.

From Virginia to North Carolina, and in a single county in South Carolina, fault-bounded Triassic Basins are scattered amongst the igneous and metamorphic uplands. These basins are underlain by Triassic and Jurassic siltstone, shale, sandstone, and mudstone, which were laid down in response to continental rifting and subsequent erosion during the Mesozoic era.

MLRA SOILS
The dominant soil orders of the MLRA are Ultisols, Inceptisols, and Alfisols. Ultisols and Alfisols are typically found on more stable landforms, such as interfluves, gentle hillslopes, broad ridgetops, and stream terraces, while Inceptisols are typically found on less stable landforms, including flood plains, steep hillslopes, and narrow ridgetops.

Soils of the region predominantly have a thermic temperature regime, a udic moisture regime, and generally have kaolinitic or mixed mineralogy. In the upper Piedmont of Virginia and North Carolina however, soils have a mesic soil temperature regime, as depicted in figure 2. The mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA is oriented from northeast to southwest and occupies approximately 18 percent of the MLRA extent, or 11,729 square miles (30,377 square kilometers).

Broadly speaking, soils of the Southern Piedmont uplands are shallow to very deep, well drained, and loamy or clayey. Soils of the river valleys are generally very deep, well to poorly drained, and loamy. Soils tend to be finer-textured than in Coastal Plain regions.

MLRA CLIMATE
In general, precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year in this MLRA, with occasional drought-like conditions extending from late summer into autumn. During the growing season, most of the rainfall comes from high-intensity, convective thunderstorms. Significant moisture also comes from the movement of warm and cold fronts across the MLRA from November to April. High amounts of rain can also occur during hurricanes, usually during the months of August through October.

Over most of the MLRA, snowfall is typically light, though overall, the mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA features colder temperatures, more snowfall, and a shorter growing season than in the thermic portion. The cooler climate in this region supports an increase in species with northern or Blue Ridge affinities. Both the mean annual temperature and the length of the freeze-free period increase from north to south and with decreasing elevation from the upper to the lower Piedmont.

MLRA LAND USE AND RESOURCES
Once largely cultivated, much of this region is now planted to loblolly pine or has reverted to successional pine and hardwood forests. The more productive lands support small to medium-size family farms that produce crops and livestock, while the less productive lands have been in forest for some time. Most of the open areas are used for grazing beef cattle, though in years past, dairy cattle were also important to the local economy. The principal crops of the region include corn, soybeans, and small grains. Burley tobacco remains a crop of local importance. Cotton is grown in the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA.

Several major land cover transformations have occurred in the Southern Piedmont over the past several centuries; from open woodlands sculpted by fire, to farmland, to closed forests and planted pine, past land uses have played an outsized role in shaping present-day soils and vegetation patterns in the region. Land-use intensity peaked with the arrival of the industrial revolution, which gradually increased demand for textiles. Cotton became the dominant crop over much of the region.

In spite of early successes, two centuries of poor management practices accelerated soil erosion, stripping away the fertility and moisture-supplying capacity of soils. In addition to soil losses in the uplands, legacy sediments derived from the eroded land rapidly accumulated in the river valleys below, often leading to changes in hydrology and flooding frequency.

After being stripped of it's loamy topsoil, many areas of the Piedmont had been so badly eroded as to render the land unsuitable or economically impractical for agriculture. The effects of erosion were widespread, with cumulative soil loss estimates ranging from 5 to 10 inches on average. The steeper slopes, which had often been cleared and farmed at the height of the Cotton era, generally suffered greater losses. By the 1930's, crop production was in rapid decline in the Southern Piedmont. The loss of soil productivity due to erosion, losses to the cotton boll weevil, development of synthetic fibers, and the onset of the Great Depression all contributed to rapid abandonment of cropland. By 1960, cropland acres had decreased by more than 50 percent in nearly every county in the Southern Piedmont.

While crop production is still important today on the more productive lands, those of lower productivity, or those that were subject to severe erosion, were often abandoned some time ago. Typically, they have either reverted to forest, or have been converted to other uses. Although the productivity of soils was greatly reduced through erosion, less intensive land uses such as grazing and forestry were still feasible. These land uses gained popularity as patterns of urban migration, low commodity prices, and other factors gradually made crop production less economical on the marginal lands.

In recent years, large-scale adoption of soil conservation practices have led to better outcomes with respect to erosion in much of MLRA, increasing the economic viability and long-term sustainability of Piedmont farms. Despite some success, water erosion remains one of the most important soil resource concerns in the MLRA.

Other major resource concerns include increasing conversion of prime farmland and farmland of statewide importance to urban uses. Throughout the MLRA, metropolitan areas are expanding into lands that have historically been used for timber or agriculture. This change in land use is occurring rapidly in the corridor called the Piedmont Crescent, which extends from Atlanta, Georgia, to Raleigh, North Carolina.

HISTORIC VEGETATION COVER
Over most of the Southern Piedmont uplands, the historic oak-hickory, or oak-hickory-pine forest, once covered large portions of the landscape. It was dominated by upland oaks, such as white oak (Quercus alba), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and southern red oak (Quercus falcata), with a smaller contribution from hickories (Carya spp.) and pines. The principal pine species are shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), and to the north and west, Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana). In the southernmost and easternmost portions of the MLRA, the historic montane longleaf pine forest, dominated by longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), shortleaf pine (P. echinata), and dry-site oaks, was found on ridgetops and steep south or west-facing slopes.

According to historic accounts, forests and woodlands of the past were generally more open and park-like, having been exposed to a more frequent fire regime. Piedmont prairies, likely maintained by Native Americans, were also reportedly common across the landscape, as were fire-maintained canebrakes along the streams (Trimble 1974; Daniels 1987; Griffith et al. 2002; Van Lear et al. 2004; Dearman and James 2019; Schomberg et al. 2020; USDA-NRCS 2022).

LRU notes

MLRA 136 is one of the largest MLRAs in the United States. It has a broad north-south and east-west extent and covers a wide range of elevations. The MLRA is partitioned by the mesic-thermic line, which divides the MLRA into mesic and thermic soil temperature regimes (figure 2.). The mesic soil temperature regime was delineated based on estimates of the native range of loblolly pine, which was historically absent in this part of the MLRA. In addition, this region is said to represent the northern and western limits of cotton production, an important crop to the south and east.

ESDs developed for this MLRA were split geographically into mesic and thermic ecological site concepts. Climate variation across the MLRA extent warrants the development of Land Resource Unit (LRU) classifications, to further subdivide the MLRA and support more precise Ecological Site Descriptions.

Classification relationships

APPLICABLE USNVC ASSOCIATIONS
CEGL007356 Quercus pagoda - Quercus phellos - Quercus lyrata - Quercus michauxii / Chasmanthium latifolium; CEGL008487 Quercus shumardii - Quercus michauxii - Quercus nigra / Acer floridanum - Tilia americana var. heterophylla

APPLICABLE EPA ECOREGIONS
Level III: 45. Piedmont
Level IV: 45a. Southern Inner Piedmont; 45b. Southern Outer Piedmont; 45c. Carolina Slate Belt; 45f. Northern Outer Piedmont; 45g. Triassic Basins; 45i. Kings Mountain; 45d. Talladega Upland; 45h. Pine Mountain Ridges (EPA 2013).

APPLICABLE USFS ECOLOGICAL UNITS
Domain: Humid Temperate
Division: Subtropical
Ecological province: 231. Southeastern Mixed Forest
Ecological sections: 231I.Central Appalachian Piedmont; 231A. Southern Appalachian Piedmont (Cleland et al. 2007).

Based on the USGS physiographic classification system (Fenneman and Johnson 1946), most of MLRA 136 is in the Piedmont Upland section of the Piedmont province, in the Appalachian Highlands division.

Ecological site concept

This ecological site includes seasonally wet areas on low stream terraces, or along drainageways, which sit slightly above the active flood plain and which are not subject to regular overbank flooding. It is situated in river valleys, or along the lower segments of drainageways leading down to river valleys in the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA.

Because this ecological site typically sits at an intermediate elevation above the river, the frequency of flooding is typically lower than those ecological sites found on active flood plains. Flooding occurs mainly after a period of unusually wet weather. It is usually of brief duration. Still, flooding frequency is usually higher than on PX136X00X660, an associated ecological site that often sits on the higher-lying stream terraces nearby. When overbank flooding does occur, it typically slows by the time it reaches this ecological site, so that scouring and movement of debris are relatively minor, but periodic deposition of sediment-bound nutrients is important for fertility. Though flooding is important to consider for planning purposes, it is not the primary driver of pedogenesis or ecological dynamics.

Soils on this ecological site are typically very deep, somewhat poorly drained Ultisols or Alfisols. They are generally better developed than those of adjacent flood plains, as the flooding frequency is not great enough to interfere with soil formation to any major extent. Being situated on more stable surfaces, soils on this ecological site usually have an argillic horizon in subsurface layers. Parent materials are typically clayey to loamy old alluvial sediments.

The reference state supports a closed canopy forest dominated by bottomland oaks, including willow oak (Quercus phellos), swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii), Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), and water oak (Quercus nigra), along with other species typical of alluvial settings. Dominant land uses include cropland, pasture and hayland, and wildlife habitat.

ES CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARY
• Thermic soil temperature regime
• Occurs on low stream terraces (flood-plain steps) in river valleys, or along the lower segments of drainageways leading down to river valleys
• Seasonal high water table: 12 - 18 inches from the soil surface
• Soils: very deep, somewhat poorly drained Ultisols or Alfisols

Associated sites

PX136X00X640	Low Terraces and Drains, Occasional Inundation Found in similar or slightly lower landscape positions. The seasonal high water table is shallower (0-12 inches from the soil surface), supporting a greater proportion of obligate wetland indicator species.
PX136X00X660	High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation Typically found in higher landscape positions further from the stream channel. Flooding is generally less frequent and the seasonal high water table is deeper (> 18 inches from the soil surface), resulting in a decrease in obligate or facultative wetland indicator species and an increase in species associated with upland landscapes.

PX136X00X640

Low Terraces and Drains, Occasional Inundation

Found in similar or slightly lower landscape positions. The seasonal high water table is shallower (0-12 inches from the soil surface), supporting a greater proportion of obligate wetland indicator species.

PX136X00X660

High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation

Typically found in higher landscape positions further from the stream channel. Flooding is generally less frequent and the seasonal high water table is deeper (> 18 inches from the soil surface), resulting in a decrease in obligate or facultative wetland indicator species and an increase in species associated with upland landscapes.

Similar sites

PX136X00X150	Mesic Temperature Regime, Low Terraces and Drains, Rare Inundation The soil temperature regime is mesic, occurring outside of the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).
PX136X00X610	Flood Plain Forest, Wet Found on active flood plains that are subject to regular overbank flooding and higher flooding-related tree mortality, supporting an increase in riparian species which invest in rapid growth and early reproduction (e.g., sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), etc.). Soil pH and natural fertility are usually higher on these younger surfaces.

PX136X00X150

Mesic Temperature Regime, Low Terraces and Drains, Rare Inundation

The soil temperature regime is mesic, occurring outside of the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).

PX136X00X610

Flood Plain Forest, Wet

Found on active flood plains that are subject to regular overbank flooding and higher flooding-related tree mortality, supporting an increase in riparian species which invest in rapid growth and early reproduction (e.g., sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), etc.). Soil pH and natural fertility are usually higher on these younger surfaces.

Figure 1. EPA level IV ecoregions of the Southern Piedmont (45).

Figure 2. Spatial illustration of soil temperature regimes of the Southern Piedmont.

Figure 3. Spatial extent of this ecological site representing the major areas where this site is important on the landscape.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Quercus phellos (2) Quercus michauxii
Shrub	(1) Ilex decidua (2) Lindera benzoin
Herbaceous	(1) Athyrium filix-femina ssp. asplenioides (2) Carex

Legacy ID

F136XY650NC

Download full description

Physiographic features

This ecological site is found on stream terraces. Although colloquially these landforms are described as low stream terraces, they are formally classified as flood-plain steps, since they usually sit below the 100 year flood zone. Occasionally, this ecological site can be found along the lower segments of drainageways leading down to river valleys. In either case, overbank flooding is not the dominant pedogenic process primary driver of pedogenesis or ecological dynamics.

This ecological site is geographically restricted to the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA. It is most extensive on the stepped surfaces of relatively broad river valleys of large river systems. These low terraces, sit elevated slightly above the active flood plain, and are spared from some of the flooding experienced on lower flood plain surfaces.

Stream terraces form in response to gradual downcutting of a stream channel and its immediately adjacent surfaces, usually initiated by events that shift erosional and depositional equilibrium. Over time, abandoned portions of the flood plain are left behind as remnant features. Representative locations are nearly level to gently sloping, with a representative slope of 0 to 2 percent and a maximum slope of 5 percent. The geologic substrate is typically loamy to clayey old alluvial sediments (Zinck 2016; Schoeneberger and Wysocki 2017).

Note: river valleys associated with Triassic Basins tend to be broader than in most other parts of the Southern Piedmont, irrespective of stream order, due to the high weatherability of Triassic sediments. Here, distinct landforms, such as stream terraces, flood plain flats, backswamps, and natural levees, tend to be better developed. This is known to have a strong influence over the vegetation communities that establish on a given site, allowing vegetation communities to sort out more neatly along gradients of hydroperiod, elevation above the river channel, and other flooding-related variables. At this time however, there is not enough data to support a geographic split between alluvial ecological site concepts associated with Triassic Basins (EPA ecoregion 45g) and those of other regions. Future ecological site work should consider targeting Triassic Basin river valleys to determine weather a distinct set of ecological site concepts is warranted, and if delineating these concepts across the landscape would be feasible.

Figure 4. Typical soil-landscape relationships in a broad river valley in the Southern Piedmont. Warne soils are associated with this ecological site, depicted here on low stream terraces above an active flood plain.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) River valley > Flood-plain step (2) Piedmont > Drainageway
Runoff class	Negligible to low
Flooding duration	Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	Rare to occasional
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	290 – 870 ft
Slope	2%
Water table depth	12 – 18 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Table 3. Representative physiographic features (actual ranges)

Runoff class	Very low to very high
Flooding duration	Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	None to frequent
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	130 – 1,700 ft
Slope	5%
Water table depth	12 – 24 in

Climatic features

On this ecological site, the average mean annual precipitation is 47 inches. On average, the rainiest months occur in July and August, as well as in March. The driest months occur in April, May, and October.

Table 4. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	164-192 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	195-226 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	45-50 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	155-203 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	183-250 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	43-55 in
Frost-free period (average)	178 days
Freeze-free period (average)	212 days
Precipitation total (average)	47 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 5. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 6. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

Bar

Line

Figure 7. Monthly maximum temperature range

Bar

Line

Figure 8. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 9. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 10. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) SILOAM 3N [USC00098064], Greensboro, GA
(2) COMMERCE 4 NNW [USC00092180], Commerce, GA
(3) HARTWELL [USC00094133], Hartwell, GA
(4) ELBERTON 2 N [USC00093060], Elberton, GA
(5) CLARKS HILL 1 W [USC00381726], Modoc, SC
(6) MC CORMICK 9 E [USC00385658], Mc Cormick, SC
(7) CLEMSON OCONEE CO AP [USW00053850], Seneca, SC
(8) ANDERSON [USC00380165], Anderson, SC
(9) GREENVILLE DWTN AP [USW00013886], Greenville, SC
(10) SPARTANBURG 3 SSE [USC00388188], Spartanburg, SC
(11) SANTUCK [USC00387722], Union, SC
(12) KERSHAW 1SW [USC00384690], Kershaw, SC
(13) WINTHROP UNIV [USC00389350], Rock Hill, SC
(14) YORK 4 S [USC00389625], York, SC
(15) NINETY NINE ISLANDS [USC00386293], Blacksburg, SC
(16) ROCK HILL YORK CO AP [USW00053871], Rock Hill, SC
(17) WADESBORO [USC00318964], Wadesboro, NC
(18) MONROE 2 SE [USC00315771], Monroe, NC
(19) MONROE AP [USW00053872], Monroe, NC
(20) CHARLOTTE DOUGLAS AP [USW00013881], Charlotte, NC
(21) GASTONIA MUNI AP [USW00053870], Gastonia, NC
(22) GASTONIA [USC00313356], Gastonia, NC
(23) FOREST CITY 6 SW [USC00313150], Forest City, NC
(24) FOREST CITY 8 W [USC00313152], Rutherfordton, NC
(25) CONCORD [USC00311975], Concord, NC
(26) ALBEMARLE [USC00310090], Albemarle, NC
(27) ASHEBORO 2 W [USC00310286], Asheboro, NC
(28) HIGH POINT [USC00314063], High Point, NC
(29) BURLINGTON ALAMANCE AP [USW00093783], Burlington, NC
(30) HAW RIVER 1E [USC00313919], Graham, NC
(31) YANCEYVILLE 4 SE [USC00319704], Yanceyville, NC
(32) CHAPEL HILL 2 W [USC00311677], Carrboro, NC
(33) DURHAM 11 W [USW00003758], Chapel Hill, NC
(34) CHAPEL HILL WILLIAMS AP [USW00093785], Chapel Hill, NC
(35) SANFORD 8 NE [USC00317656], Sanford, NC
(36) CLAYTON WTP [USC00311820], Clayton, NC
(37) RALEIGH 4 SW [USC00317074], Raleigh, NC
(38) APEX [USC00310212], Apex, NC
(39) RALEIGH DURHAM INTL AP [USW00013722], Raleigh, NC
(40) FALLS LAKE [USC00312993], Raleigh, NC
(41) OXFORD AG [USC00316510], Oxford, NC
(42) LOUISBURG [USC00315123], Louisburg, NC
(43) ARCOLA [USC00310241], Macon, NC
(44) HENDERSON 2 NNW [USC00313969], Henderson, NC
(45) LAWRENCEVILLE 3 E [USC00444768], Freeman, VA
(46) JOHN H KERR DAM [USC00444414], Boydton, VA
(47) CLARKSVILLE [USC00441746], Clarksville, VA
(48) CHASE CITY [USC00441606], Chase City, VA
(49) CHARLOTTE COURT HOUSE [USC00441585], Keysville, VA
(50) CAMP PICKETT [USC00441322], Blackstone, VA
(51) GREENBAY 3 NE [USC00443565], Burkeville, VA
(52) AMELIA COURTHOUSE 1 [USC00440187], Amelia Court House, VA
(53) AMELIA 8 NE [USC00440188], Amelia Court House, VA
(54) CROZIER [USC00442142], Maidens, VA
(55) OPELIKA [USC00016129], Opelika, AL
(56) COLUMBUS METRO AP [USW00093842], Columbus, GA
(57) MULBERRY GROVE [USC00096148], Smiths Station, GA
(58) ROCKFORD 3 ESE [USC00017020], Rockford, AL
(59) ALEXANDER CITY [USC00010160], Alexander City, AL
(60) ASHLAND 3 ENE [USC00010369], Ashland, AL
(61) HEFLIN [USC00013775], Heflin, AL
(62) CARROLLTON [USC00091640], Carrollton, GA
(63) NEWNAN 5N [USC00096335], Newnan, GA
(64) MILLEDGEVILLE [USC00095874], Milledgeville, GA
(65) ALPHARETTA 4 SSW [USC00090219], Alpharetta, GA
(66) MCDONOUGH [USC00095666], McDonough, GA

Influencing water features

This ecological site sits high enough above the active flood plain to avoid some of the flooding experienced on lower surfaces. Flooding occurs mainly after a period of unusually wet weather. The heavy rainfall generates saturation-excess runoff, filling rivers and streams, leading to flooding on the higher river valley surfaces. Unless artificial drainage is introduced, a seasonal high water table is apparent at depths between 12 and 18 inches in representative pedons, generally during the months of December to May.

Soil features

Soils on this ecological site are typically very deep, somewhat poorly drained Ultisols or Alfisols. They are better developed than soils of adjacent flood plains, as they are generally found on more stable surfaces that are more conducive to soil genesis. As such, soils on this ecological site usually have an argillic horizon in subsurface layers. These soils are typically in a fine-loamy or fine particle size family. Redoximorphic features (iron and/or manganese depletions) are found at depths between 12 to 18 inches and below in representative pedons. Parent materials are typically old loamy or clayey alluvial sediments.

Reaction in the subsoil is typically strongly acid to very strongly acid (pH 4.5 to 5.5), although it can be as high as pH 8.4 in sodium affected soils of some Triassic basin stream terraces. In the surface layers, reaction varies with land use and management. Under low input or forested conditions, it generally falls somewhere between pH 4.5 and 6.0.

Soils on this ecological site have a thermic soil temperature regime, which is characterized by a mean annual soil temperature of 15°C to 22°C and a winter to summer temperature differential of 6°C or more in the subsoil.

Modal taxa include: Aeric Endoaquults
Modal soil series include: Augusta, Warne
Other soils attributed to this ecological site include Fork, Merry Oaks, Hornsboro, and Sylacauga

Figure 11. An illustration of a soil profile belonging to the Augusta series, a representative soil series associated with this ecological site.

Figure 12. A soil profile of the Augusta series.

Table 5. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium – igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock
Surface texture	(1) Silt loam (2) Loam (3) Fine sandy loam (4) Sandy loam
Family particle size	(1) Fine-loamy (2) Fine
Drainage class	Somewhat poorly drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to moderately rapid
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-80in)	8 – 14 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	4.5 – 6
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	6%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	Not specified

Table 6. Representative soil features (actual values)

Drainage class	Somewhat poorly drained
Permeability class	Moderately slow to moderately rapid
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-80in)	8 – 17 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	3.5 – 8.4
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	9%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	1%

Ecological dynamics

U.S. National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) associations that are consistent with reference conditions on this ecological site include CEGL007356 Quercus pagoda - Quercus phellos - Quercus lyrata - Quercus michauxii / Chasmanthium latifolium, which is most common in the broad river valleys of Triassic Basins and portions of the lower Piedmont. This association covers two bottomland assemblages identified by Mathews et al. (2011), 'Quercus lyrata - Fraxinus pennsylvanica / Saururus cernuus,' which is representative of examples with a longer hydroperiod and finer-textured soils, and 'Quercus (phellos, pagoda, michauxii) - Ulmus americana / Ilex decidua / Arisaema triphyllum,' which is representative of examples with a slightly shorter hydroperiod and loamier soils. The latter assemblage is likely more representative of this ecological site, though outside of the lower Piedmont and Triassic Basins, cherrybark oak (Q. pagoda) is uncommon. Examples that lack Q. pagoda and other species with coastal plain affinities are covered by CEGL008487 Quercus shumardii - Quercus michauxii - Quercus nigra / Acer floridanum - Tilia americana var. heterophylla, which is more representative of the narrower river valleys of the upper Piedmont and the Carolina Slate Belt. The reference community on this ecological site overlaps that of Schafale (2012), 'Piedmont Bottomland Forest (Typic Low Subtype).'

MATURE FORESTS
The reference state supports a closed canopy forest dominated by bottomland oaks, including willow oak (Quercus phellos), swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii), Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), and water oak (Quercus nigra), among others. Also consistent in the canopy, are black walnut (Juglans nigra), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), American elm (Ulmus americana), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis), and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda). Cherrybark oak (Quercus pagoda), a species with Coastal Plain affinities, can be important in some examples. In the Piedmont however, it is more numerous on broad, coastal plain-like flood plains and stream terraces of the lower Piedmont and Triassic Basins. Though usually a minor component of the canopy, upland oaks and hickories are often present in small numbers.

In the subcanopy layer, American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana) is usually dominant, as it is in many alluvial settings. Other characteristic species include blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica) and common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana). In the shrub layer, characteristic species include possumhaw (Ilex decidua), blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea), southern arrowwood (Viburnum recognitum, V. dentatum), and black highbush blueberry (Vaccinium fuscatum).

In the herb layer, dominant species include asplenium ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina ssp. asplenioides), Jack in the pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), several species of Carex (C. debilis, amphibola, radiata, etc.), Indian woodoats (Chasmanthium latifolium), and sweet woodreed (Cinna arundinacea).

The reference forest type is best developed on the stepped surfaces of relatively broad river valleys. Here, distinct landforms, such as stream terraces, flood plain flats, backswamps, and natural levees, tend to be better developed. In this setting, stream terraces tend to be broader and include more extensive wet areas.

DYNAMICS OF NATURAL SUCCESSION
Successional dynamics on this ecological site are not well-documented. Tree replacement likely takes place in canopy gaps caused by windthrow, disease, and the like, much like on moist uplands of the Piedmont. Flooding presumably plays a relatively minor role. Though fire was historically a key driver of successional dynamics on Piedmont uplands, the historic influence of fire on this ecological site was likely insignificant.

This ecological site is particularly vulnerable to invasion by Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), a non-native shrub or small tree which was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century. Many thousands of acres of bottomlands and flood plain forests now have a nearly continuous layer of Chinese privet, excluding most of the native flora beneath. Also problematic is Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), otherwise known as Japanese stiltgrass, which thrives in low-lying areas. This non-native bamboo-like grass can outcompete most native herbs under conditions of low light, often forming dense monospecific stands with few other species. These and other introduced species, such as multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), usually require disturbance to gain a foothold, but once they do, they are remarkably persistent due to their reproductive capacity and tolerance for shade.

YOUNG SECONDARY FORESTS
Young secondary forests associated with this ecological site are usually even-aged, less diverse, and more likely to be invaded by non-native understory species. These forests are more common on the landscape today due to the long history of agricultural use and logging in river valleys of the Southern Piedmont. Typically, these forests are strongly dominated by only a handful of species, of which sweetgum (L. styraciflua) is probably most common overall. The dominance of sweetgum (L. styraciflua) and other early pioneers declines as the forest matures, though many of these species remain important in mature stands as well, albeit to a lesser extent. Other characteristic species of young secondary forests on this ecological site include box elder (Acer negundo), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), red maple (Acer rubrum), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and winged elm (Ulmus alata)(Nelson et al. 1957; Wharton 1978; Nelson 1986; Matthews et al. 2011; Schafale 2012a, 2012b; Edwards et al. 2013; Fleming et al. 2022).

SPECIES LIST
Canopy layer: Quercus phellos, Quercus michauxii, Quercus shumardii, Quercus nigra, Quercus pagoda, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, Ulmus americana, Liquidambar styraciflua, Carya cordiformis, Pinus taeda, Liriodendron tulipifera, Ulmus alata, Acer rubrum,

Subcanopy layer: Carpinus caroliniana, Nyssa sylvatica, Diospyros virginiana, Acer negundo, Prunus serotina, Cornus florida, Ilex decidua, Quercus oglethorpensis, Ligustrum sinense (I)

Vines/lianas: Bignonia capreolata, Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Smilax rotundifolia, Smilax bona-nox, Smilax glauca, Smilax tamnoides, Campsis radicans, Vitis rotundifolia, Toxicodendron radicans, Vitis cinerea var. baileyana, Trachelospermum difforme, Gelsemium sempervirens, Lonicera japonica (I)

Shrub layer: Ilex decidua, Viburnum prunifolium, Arundinaria gigantea, Ilex opaca, Euonymus americanus, Viburnum recognitum, Viburnum dentatum, Vaccinium fuscatum, Viburnum nudum, Ligustrum sinense (I), Rosa multiflora (I)

Herb layer - forbs: Athyrium filix-femina ssp. asplenioides, Arisaema triphyllum, Mitchella repens, Scutellaria integrifolia, Cryptotaenia canadensis, Polygonatum biflorum, Boehmeria cylindrica, Viola sororia, Lysimachia ciliata, Galium triflorum, Asarum canadense, Geranium maculatum, Thelypteris noveboracensis, Botrychium dissectum, Botrychium biternatum, Botrychium virginianum, Galium tinctorium, Geum canadense, Polygonum virginianum, Pluchea camphorata, Verbesina alternifolia, Polystichum acrostichoides, Viola affinis, Ranunculus recurvatus, Ranunculus hispidus, Sisyrinchium angustifolium, Smallanthus uvedalius, Solidago rugosa, Agrimonia parviflora, Solidago gigantea, Claytonia virginica, Onoclea sensibilis, Woodwardia areolata, Ophioglossum vulgatum, Symphyotrichum lateriflorum, Symphyotrichum racemosum, Trillium catesbaei, Lysimachia nummularia (I)

Herb layer - graminoids: Carex spp. (debilis, amphibola, radiata, albolutescens, oxylepis, etc.), Chasmanthium latifolium, Cinna arundinacea, Elymus virginicus, Dichanthelium boscii, Dichanthelium sphaerocarpon var. isophyllum, Leersia Virginica, Dichanthelium clandestinum, Juncus coriaceus, Juncus effusus, Poa cuspida, Microstegium vimineum (I), Arthraxon hispidus (I)

(I) = introduced

State and transition model

More interactive model formats are also available. View Interactive Models
Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State: Low-Bottomland Forest

2. Secondary Succession State

3. Pasture/Hayland State

4. Cropland State

T1A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T1B	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T1C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T2A	-	Long-term natural succession.
T2B	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T2C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T3A	-	Long-term cessation of grazing.
T3B	-	Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T4A	-	Agricultural abandonment.
T4B	-	Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Forested Successional Phase

2.2. Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

2.3. Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

2.1A	-	Clearcut logging.
2.2A	-	Natural succession.
2.2B	-	Brush management.
2.3A	-	Natural succession.

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Conservation-management Cropland Phase

4.2. Conventional-management Cropland Phase

4.1A	-	Conventional tillage is reintroduced.
4.2A	-	Implementation of conservation tillage and other soil conservation practices

State 1
Reference State: Low-Bottomland Forest

This mature forest state supports a closed canopy forest dominated by bottomland oaks and other bottomland hardwood species.

Characteristics and indicators. Stands are uneven-aged with at least some old trees present. In contrast with young, recently disturbed stands, native species are more likely to dominate the shrub and herb layers.

Dominant plant species

willow oak (Quercus phellos), tree
swamp chestnut oak (Quercus michauxii), tree
Shumard's oak (Quercus shumardii), tree
water oak (Quercus nigra), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
American elm (Ulmus americana), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), tree
possumhaw (Ilex decidua), shrub
blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), shrub
giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea), shrub
American holly (Ilex opaca), shrub
bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), shrub
crossvine (Bignonia capreolata), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
white edge sedge (Carex debilis), grass
eastern narrowleaf sedge (Carex amphibola), grass
eastern star sedge (Carex radiata), grass
Indian woodoats (Chasmanthium latifolium), grass
sweet woodreed (Cinna arundinacea), grass
asplenium ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina ssp. asplenioides), other herbaceous
Jack in the pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), other herbaceous
partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), other herbaceous
helmet flower (Scutellaria integrifolia), other herbaceous
Canadian honewort (Cryptotaenia canadensis), other herbaceous
smooth Solomon's seal (Polygonatum biflorum), other herbaceous
smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), other herbaceous
common blue violet (Viola sororia), other herbaceous
fragrant bedstraw (Galium triflorum), other herbaceous
stiff marsh bedstraw (Galium tinctorium), other herbaceous
fringed loosestrife (Lysimachia ciliata), other herbaceous

State 2
Secondary Succession State

This state develops in the immediate aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Which species colonize a particular location in the wake of a disturbance does involve a considerable degree of chance. It also depends a great deal on the type, duration, and magnitude of the disturbance event.

Characteristics and indicators. Plant age distribution is usually even.

Community 2.1
Forested Successional Phase

This successional phase develops in the wake of long-term agricultural abandonment, logging, storm-related catastrophic tree mortality, or other large-scale disturbances that have led to canopy removal in the recent past. It is typically dominated by bottomland hardwoods or a mixture of bottomland hardwoods and pines. Stands are usually even-aged and tend to have an abundance of non-native species in the understory.

Forest overstory. Overall, sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) is the probably the most representative species of the canopy layer. Other important species include box elder (Acer negundo), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), and tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), among others. Species diversity is generally lower than in mature examples. Bottomland oaks are typically scarce in the canopy.

Forest understory. Typical subcanopy species include blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), and American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), along with saplings of canopy species. Seedlings of bottomland oaks and other slow growing, shade-tolerant tree species are usually present in the understory. These seedlings are released gradually as the forest matures and successional canopy species die. In the shrub layer, Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) is often strongly dominant.

In the herb layer, Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), or Japanese stiltgrass as it is commonly known, is often abundant. This non-native bamboo-like grass gains a foothold after disturbance.

Dominant plant species

sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), tree
willow oak (Quercus phellos), tree
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
white edge sedge (Carex debilis), grass
eastern narrowleaf sedge (Carex amphibola), grass
eastern star sedge (Carex radiata), grass
greenwhite sedge (Carex albolutescens), grass
deertongue (Dichanthelium clandestinum), grass
smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), other herbaceous
common blue violet (Viola sororia), other herbaceous
ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea), other herbaceous
wild garlic (Allium vineale), other herbaceous
wingstem (Verbesina alternifolia), other herbaceous
creeping jenny (Lysimachia nummularia), other herbaceous
wrinkleleaf goldenrod (Solidago rugosa ssp. rugosa), other herbaceous
asplenium ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina ssp. asplenioides), other herbaceous
sparselobe grapefern (Botrychium biternatum), other herbaceous

Community 2.2
Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

This successional phase is dominated by shrubs and vines, along with seedlings of opportunistic hardwoods and pines. It grades into the forested successional phase as tree seedlings become saplings and begin to occupy more of the canopy cover.

Forest overstory. Non-native species usually occupy a large portion of the vine or shrub cover in most examples, with Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) being the most troublesome species on this ecological site. Other common shrub species include black elderberry (Sambucus nigra) and blackberry (Rubus spp.).

Characteristic vines include poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), and several species of greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia, S. bona-nox, S. tamnoides, S. glauca).

Dominant plant species

sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), shrub
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
black elderberry (Sambucus nigra), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), shrub
eastern baccharis (Baccharis halimifolia), shrub
deertongue (Dichanthelium clandestinum), grass
velvet panicum (Dichanthelium scoparium), grass
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
rush (Juncus), grass
wrinkleleaf goldenrod (Solidago rugosa ssp. rugosa), other herbaceous
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
crownbeard (Verbesina), other herbaceous
hairy leafcup (Smallanthus uvedalius), other herbaceous
trumpetweed (Eutrochium fistulosum), other herbaceous
New York ironweed (Vernonia noveboracensis), other herbaceous
smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), other herbaceous
sensitive fern (Onoclea sensibilis), other herbaceous
asplenium ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina ssp. asplenioides), other herbaceous
camphor pluchea (Pluchea camphorata), other herbaceous

Community 2.3
Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

This transient community is composed of the first herbaceous invaders in the aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale natural disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Species composition is highly variable at this stage of succession. In addition to the named species, other herbaceous pioneers common to this ecological site include Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), various knotweeds (Polygonum spp.), hairy leafcup (Smallanthus uvedalius), common cinquefoil (Potentilla simplex), golden ragwort (Packera aurea), littleleaf buttercup (Ranunculus abortivus), sharpwing monkeyflower (Mimulus alata), Allegheny monkeyflower (Mimulus ringens), Virginia buttonweed (Diodia virginiana), Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), beefsteakplant (Perilla frutescens), evening primrose (Oenothera spp.), American pokeweed (Phytolacca americana), camphor pluchea (Pluchea camphorata), and many others.

Resilience management. If the user wishes to maintain this community/phase for wildlife or pollinator habitat, a prescribed burn, mowing, or prescribed grazing will be needed at least once annually to prevent community pathway 2.3A. To that end, as part of long-term maintenance, periodic overseeding of wildlife or pollinator seed mixtures can be helpful in ensuring the viability of certain desired species and maintaining the desired composition of species for user goals.

Dominant plant species

greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
velvet panicum (Dichanthelium scoparium), grass
barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli), grass
rush (Juncus), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
small carpetgrass (Arthraxon hispidus), grass
deertongue (Dichanthelium clandestinum), grass
beggarticks (Bidens), other herbaceous
American burnweed (Erechtites hieraciifolius), other herbaceous
smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), other herbaceous
wrinkleleaf goldenrod (Solidago rugosa ssp. rugosa), other herbaceous
wingstem (Verbesina alternifolia), other herbaceous
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
aster (Symphyotrichum), other herbaceous
great ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), other herbaceous
bitter dock (Rumex obtusifolius), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.3

The forested successional phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

The shrub-dominated successional phase naturally moves towards the forested successional phase through natural succession.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3

The shrub-dominated successional phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through brush management, including herbicide application, mechanical removal, prescribed grazing, or fire.

Context dependence. Note: if the user wishes to use this community pathway to create wildlife or pollinator habitat, please contact a local NRCS office for a species list specific to the area of interest and user needs. If the user wishes to maintain the shrub-dominated successional phase long term, for wildlife habitat or other uses, periodic use of this community pathway is necessary to prevent community pathway 2.2A, which happens inevitably unless natural succession is set back through disturbance.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2

The herbaceous early successional phase naturally moves towards the shrub-dominated successional phase through natural succession.

State 3
Pasture/Hayland State

This converted state is dominated by herbaceous forage species.

Resilience management. Flooding: This ecological site is subject to flooding in some years during periods of unusually wet weather. The duration of flooding is usually short-lived, though pastures may remain wet for longer periods. Landowners will need access to additional pasture or housing that is not subject to flooding, on which to move livestock as needed. Overgrazing and High Foot Traffic: In areas that are subject to high foot traffic from livestock and equipment, and/or long-term overgrazing, unpalatable weedy species tend to invade, as most desirable forage species are less competitive under these conditions. High risk areas include locations where livestock congregate for water, shade, or feed, and in travel lanes, gates, and other areas of heavy use. Plant species that are indicative of overgrazing or excessive foot traffic on this ecological site include buttercup (Ranunculus spp.), curly dock (Rumex crispus), bitter dock (Rumex obtusifolius), Virginia buttonweed (Diodia virginiana), Oriental lady's thumb (Polygonum cespitosum var. longisetum), Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), small carpetgrass (Arthraxon hispidus), nimblewill (Muhlenbergia schreberi), Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), and common rush (Juncus effusus), among others. An overabundance of these species, along with poor plant vigor and areas of bare soil, may imply that excessive foot traffic and/or overgrazing is a concern, either in the present or in the recent past. Brush Encroachment: Brush encroachment can be problematic in some pastures, particularly near fence lines where there is often a ready seed source. Pastures subject to low stocking density and long-duration grazing rotations can also be susceptible to encroachment from woody plants. Shorter grazing rotations of higher stocking density can help alleviate pressure from shrubs and vines with low palatability or thorny stems. Clipping behind grazing rotations, annual brush hogging, and multispecies grazing systems (cattle with or followed by goats) can also be helpful. Common woody invaders of pasture on this ecological site include Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), blackberry (Rubus spp.), and rose (Rosa spp.).

Dominant plant species

tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), grass
eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), grass
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), grass
beaked panicgrass (Panicum anceps), grass
Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
rush (Juncus), grass
white clover (Trifolium repens), other herbaceous
vetch (Vicia), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous

State 4
Cropland State

This converted state produces food or fiber for human uses. It is dominated by domesticated crop species, along with typical weedy invaders of cropland. Soil wetness is the primary limiting factor for crop production, particularly for winter cereals and other cool-season crops.

Community 4.1
Conservation-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the practice of no-tillage or strip-tillage, and other soil conservation practices. Though no-till systems offer many benefits, several weedy species tend to be more problematic under this type of management system. In contrast with conventional tillage systems, problematic species in no-till systems include biennial or perennial weeds, owing to the fact that tillage is no longer used in weed management.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous
upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), other herbaceous

Community 4.2
Conventional-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the recurrent use of tillage as a management tool. Due to the frequent disturbance regime, weedy invaders tend to be annual herbaceous species that reproduce quickly and are prolific seed producers.

Resilience management. The potential for soil loss is high under this management system. Measures should be put in place to limit erosion.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous
upland cotton (Gossypium hirsutum), other herbaceous

Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2

The conservation-management cropland phase can shift to the conventional-management cropland phase through cessation of conservation tillage practices and the reintroduction of conventional tillage practices.

Context dependence. Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after reintroduction of conventional tillage practices. These changes continue to manifest as conventional tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1

The conventional-management cropland phase can be brought into the conservation-management cropland phase through the implementation of one of several conservation tillage options, including no-tillage or strip-tillage, along with implementation of other soil conservation practices.

Context dependence. Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after implementation of conservation tillage. These changes continue to manifest as conservation tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

The reference state can transition to the secondary succession state through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The reference state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. Herbicide applications, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 4

The reference state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 1

The secondary succession state can transition to the reference state through long-term natural succession.

Constraints to recovery. Even with long-term natural succession, non-native species that gain a foothold after disturbance may still be problematic in the understory of bottomland forests nearing maturity. It is unknown whether the understory will eventually approach the composition of old-growth stands without significant human intervention. Species such as Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) and Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum) may become fixtures in mature bottomland forests of the near future, due to their reproductive capacity and tolerance for shade. The importance of these weedy invaders will likely decline over time, though the extent to which they will persist in the long-term absence of anthropogenic disturbance is unknown.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 3

The secondary succession state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning wooded or semi-wooded land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 4

The secondary succession state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, 4) weed control, 5) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking may be needed to successfully transition land that has been fallow for some time back to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the secondary succession state through long-term cessation of grazing.

Transition T3B
State 3 to 4

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the cropland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) applications of fertilizer/lime, 3) weed control, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

The cropland state can transition to the secondary succession state through agricultural abandonment.

Transition T4B
State 4 to 3

The cropland state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) weed control, and 3) planting of perennial forage grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. To convert cropland to pasture or hayland, weed control and good seed-soil contact are important. It is also critical to review the labels of herbicides used for weed control and on the previous crop. Many herbicides have plant-back restrictions, which if not followed could carryover and kill forage seedlings as they germinate. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Additional community tables

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Data collection and analysis of field data will be performed during the Verification Stage of ESD development.

Other references

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C.A. Carpenter, W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections for the conterminous United States. General Technical Report WO-76D. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Washington, D.C.

Daniels, R.B. 1987. Soil Erosion and Degradation in the Southern Piedmont of the USA. In: M.G. Wolman, F.G.A. Fournier (eds.) Land Transformation in Agriculture. John Wiley and Sons. New York, NY.

Dearman, T.L., L.A. James. 2019. Patterns of legacy sediment deposits in a small South Carolina Piedmont catchment, USA. Geomorphology. 343(15):1-14.

Edwards, L., J., Ambrose, and L.K. Kirkman. 2013. Piedmont Ecoregion. In L. Edwards et al. (ed.) The natural communities of Georgia. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA. 257-345.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2013. Level III and IV ecoregions of the continental
United States. National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory. Corvallis, Oregon. Map scale 1:3,000,000.

Fenneman, N.M., Johnson D.W. 1946. Physiographic Divisions of the Conterminous U.S. U.S. Geological Survey. Washington, DC.Fenneman, N.M., Johnson D.W. 1946 Physiographic Divisions of the Conterminous U.S. U.S. Geological Survey. Washington, DC.

Fleming, G.P. 2012. The Nature of the Virginia Flora. P. 24-75. In A.S. Weakley, J.C. Ludwig, J.F. Townsend, B. Crowder (ed.) Flora of Virginia. Foundation of the Virginia Flora Project Inc., Richmond. Fort Worth: Botanical Research Institute of Texas Press.

Fleming, G. P., K. D. Patterson, and K. Taverna. 2021. The natural communities of Virginia: A classification of ecological community groups and community types. Third approximation. Version 3.3. Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of Natural Heritage, Richmond, VA. [http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural-heritage/natural-communities/]

Griffith, G.E., J.M. Omernik, J.A. Comstock, M.P. Schafale, W.H. McNab, D.R. Lenat, T.F. MacPherson, J.B. Glover, V.B. Shelburne. 2002. Ecoregions of North Carolina and South Carolina. United States Geological Survey. Reston, Virginia.

Schafale, M.P. 2012a. Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina, 4th Approximation. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Parks and Recreation. Natural Heritage Program. Raleigh, NC.

Schafale, M.P. 2012b. Guide to the Natural Communities of North Carolina. 4th Approximation. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Parks and Recreation. Natural Heritage Program. Raleigh, NC.

Schafale, M.P., A.S. Weakley. 1990. Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina. Third approximation. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Parks and Recreation, Natural Heritage Program. Raleigh, NC.

Schoeneberger, P.J., Wysocki, D.A. 2017. Geomorphic Description System, Version 5.0. United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service, National Soil Survey Center. Lincoln, NE.

Schomberg, H., G. Hoyt, B. Brock, G. Naderman. A. Meijer. 2020. Southern Piedmont Case Studies. In: J. Bergtold, M. Sailus (eds.) Conservation Tillage Systems in the Southeast. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) program.

Spira, T.P. 2011. Wildflowers & Plant Communities of the Southern Appalachian Mountains and Piedmont. A naturalist’s guide to the Carolinas, Virginia, Tennessee, and Georgia. The University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, NC.

Matthews, E.M., R.K. Peet and A.S. Weakley. 2011. Classification and description of alluvial plant communities of the Piedmont region, North Carolina, U.S.A. Applied Vegetation Science. 14:485-505.

Mulholland, P., D. Lenat. 1992. Streams of the southeastern piedmont, Atlantic drainage. In: C.T. Hackney, S. Marshall Adams, W.A. Martin (eds.) Biodiversity of the Southeastern United States - Aquatic Communities. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ.

Nelson, T.C., R.D. Ross, G. D. Walker. 1957. The extent of moist sites in the Georgia Piedmont and their forest associations. Res. Notes #102, S.E. Forest Experiment Station. United States Forest Service. Asheville, N.C.

Nelson, J.B. 1986. The natural communities of South Carolina: Initial classification and description. South Carolina Wildlife and Marine Resources Department, Division of Wildlife and Freshwater Fisheries, Columbia, SC. 55 pp.

Trimble, S.W. 1974. Man-Induced Soil Erosion on the Southern Piedmont, 1700–1970. Soil Conservation Society of America. Ankeny, IA.

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2022. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 296.

United States National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) Database Version 2.04. 2022. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Vegetation Subcommittee. Washington, DC. Available at https://usnvc.org.

Van Lear, D.H, R.A. Harper, P.R. Kapeluck, and W.D. Carroll. 2004. History of Piedmont Forests: Implications for Current Pine Management. General Technical Report SRS–71. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. Asheville, NC.

Weakley, A.S., and Southeastern Flora Team. 2023. Flora of the southeastern United States. University of North Carolina Herbarium, North Carolina Botanical Garden, Chapel Hill, NC.

Wharton, C.H. 1978. Natural environments of Georgia. Georgia Department of Natural Resources. Atlanta, Georgia.

Zinck, J.A. 2016. The Geopedologic Approach. In: J.A Zinck, G. Metternicht, G. Bocco, H.F. Del Valle (eds.) Geopedology. Springer, Cham.

Contributors

Yogev Erez
Dee Pederson

Approval

Charles Stemmans, 5/02/2025

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	05/05/2025
Approved by	Charles Stemmans
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Presence of water flow patterns:
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:

Sub-dominant:

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Perennial plant reproductive capability:

Download reference sheet

Click on box and path labels to scroll to the respective text.

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State: Low-Bottomland Forest

2. Secondary Succession State

3. Pasture/Hayland State

4. Cropland State

T1A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T1B	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T1C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T2A	-	Long-term natural succession.
T2B	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T2C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T3A	-	Long-term cessation of grazing.
T3B	-	Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T4A	-	Agricultural abandonment.
T4B	-	Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.