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Ecological site PX136X00X620

Flood Plain Forest, Moist

Last updated: 5/02/2025
Accessed: 05/19/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 136X–Southern Piedmont

This MLRA is on a large piedmont underlain by metamorphic and igneous bedrock. It stretches from north-central Virginia to east-central Alabama, running parallel to the Appalachian highlands to the northwest and the Atlantic coast to the southeast.

MLRA 136 has only subtle climatic differences with MLRA 148 (Northern Piedmont), with which it shares a common geologic origin. This adjacent MLRA sits to the north. Along the fall line, it shares a boundary with MLRA 133A (Southern Coastal Plain), MLRA 137 (Carolina and Georgia Sand Hills), and 133C (Gulf Coastal Plain). Here, unconsolidated Coastal Plain sediments intersect the much older Piedmont bedrock. Along it's northwestern boundary, it sits adjacent to MLRAs 130B (Southern Blue Ridge), 130A (Northern Blue Ridge), and 128 (Southern Appalachian Ridges and Valleys). These MLRAs are distinguished from the Southern Piedmont by topographic and elevational differences, as well as differences in the age, origin, and degree of metamorphism of the underlying bedrock.

Five states are intersected by the MLRA, including North Carolina (29 percent), Georgia (27 percent), Virginia (20 percent), South Carolina (17 percent), and Alabama (7 percent). The MLRA extent makes up about 63,720 square miles (165,034 square kilometers).

MLRA PHYSIOGRAPHY
The landscape is generally rolling to hilly, with a well-defined drainage pattern. Streams have dissected the original Piedmont plateau, forming narrow ridgetops, somewhat broad interfluves, and short, steep side slopes adjacent to the streams and drainageways. With some exceptions, the valley floors are generally narrow and make up about 10 percent or less of the land area. The associated stream terraces are generally small and of minor extent.

The landscape is moderately dissected overall, with isolated erosional remnants (monadnocks) and other areas of high topographic relief interspersed. Over most of the MLRA, elevation ranges from approximately 325 to 1,315 feet (100 to 400 meters), with elevations generally increasing toward the Appalachian Highlands, in the upper Piedmont, and decreasing toward the Coastal Plain, in the lower Piedmont.

The major rivers that cross this area en route to the ocean include, from north to south, the James, Roanoke, Cape Fear, Savannah, Altamaha, Chattahoochee, and Alabama Rivers. These rivers typically originate within the Piedmont or in the Blue Ridge. They flow east and south across the Coastal Plain and empty into the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of America.

MLRA GEOLOGY
Precambrian and Paleozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks underlie almost all of this MLRA. The dominant metamorphic rock types include gneiss, schist, slate, argillite, and phyllite, among others. Dominant igneous rock types include granite and other related felsic crystalline rocks. Mafic intrusive rocks, including gabbro, diabase, amphibolite, and other dark colored rocks, underlie a minority of the upland landscape. These mafic intrusions crop out in the form of dikes and sills, and often weather to produce soils high in base cations.

The Carolina Slate Belt runs lengthwise through the east-central part of the MLRA, in southern Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and the eastern-most part of the Georgia Piedmont. This region is underlain by fine-grained metasedimentary and metavolcanic rock, which generally weathers to produce soils high in silt.

From Virginia to North Carolina, and in a single county in South Carolina, fault-bounded Triassic Basins are scattered amongst the igneous and metamorphic uplands. These basins are underlain by Triassic and Jurassic siltstone, shale, sandstone, and mudstone, which were laid down in response to continental rifting and subsequent erosion during the Mesozoic era.

MLRA SOILS
The dominant soil orders of the MLRA are Ultisols, Inceptisols, and Alfisols. Ultisols and Alfisols are typically found on more stable landforms, such as interfluves, gentle hillslopes, broad ridgetops, and stream terraces, while Inceptisols are typically found on less stable landforms, including flood plains, steep hillslopes, and narrow ridgetops.

Soils of the region predominantly have a thermic temperature regime, a udic moisture regime, and generally have kaolinitic or mixed mineralogy. In the upper Piedmont of Virginia and North Carolina however, soils have a mesic soil temperature regime, as depicted in figure 2. The mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA is oriented from northeast to southwest and occupies approximately 18 percent of the MLRA extent, or 11,729 square miles (30,377 square kilometers).

Broadly speaking, soils of the Southern Piedmont uplands are shallow to very deep, well drained, and loamy or clayey. Soils of the river valleys are generally very deep, well to poorly drained, and loamy. Soils tend to be finer-textured than in Coastal Plain regions.

MLRA CLIMATE
In general, precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year in this MLRA, with occasional drought-like conditions extending from late summer into autumn. During the growing season, most of the rainfall comes from high-intensity, convective thunderstorms. Significant moisture also comes from the movement of warm and cold fronts across the MLRA from November to April. High amounts of rain can also occur during hurricanes, usually during the months of August through October.

Over most of the MLRA, snowfall is typically light, though overall, the mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA features colder temperatures, more snowfall, and a shorter growing season than in the thermic portion. The cooler climate in this region supports an increase in species with northern or Blue Ridge affinities. Both the mean annual temperature and the length of the freeze-free period increase from north to south and with decreasing elevation from the upper to the lower Piedmont.

MLRA LAND USE AND RESOURCES
Once largely cultivated, much of this region is now planted to loblolly pine or has reverted to successional pine and hardwood forests. The more productive lands support small to medium-size family farms that produce crops and livestock, while the less productive lands have been in forest for some time. Most of the open areas are used for grazing beef cattle, though in years past, dairy cattle were also important to the local economy. The principal crops of the region include corn, soybeans, and small grains. Burley tobacco remains a crop of local importance. Cotton is grown in the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA.

Several major land cover transformations have occurred in the Southern Piedmont over the past several centuries; from open woodlands sculpted by fire, to farmland, to closed forests and planted pine, past land uses have played an outsized role in shaping present-day soils and vegetation patterns in the region. Land-use intensity peaked with the arrival of the industrial revolution, which gradually increased demand for textiles. Cotton became the dominant crop over much of the region.

In spite of early successes, two centuries of poor management practices accelerated soil erosion, stripping away the fertility and moisture-supplying capacity of soils. In addition to soil losses in the uplands, legacy sediments derived from the eroded land rapidly accumulated in the river valleys below, often leading to changes in hydrology and flooding frequency.

After being stripped of it's loamy topsoil, many areas of the Piedmont had been so badly eroded as to render the land unsuitable or economically impractical for agriculture. The effects of erosion were widespread, with cumulative soil loss estimates ranging from 5 to 10 inches on average. The steeper slopes, which had often been cleared and farmed at the height of the Cotton era, generally suffered greater losses. By the 1930's, crop production was in rapid decline in the Southern Piedmont. The loss of soil productivity due to erosion, losses to the cotton boll weevil, development of synthetic fibers, and the onset of the Great Depression all contributed to rapid abandonment of cropland. By 1960, cropland acres had decreased by more than 50 percent in nearly every county in the Southern Piedmont.

While crop production is still important today on the more productive lands, those of lower productivity, or those that were subject to severe erosion, were often abandoned some time ago. Typically, they have either reverted to forest, or have been converted to other uses. Although the productivity of soils was greatly reduced through erosion, less intensive land uses such as grazing and forestry were still feasible. These land uses gained popularity as patterns of urban migration, low commodity prices, and other factors gradually made crop production less economical on the marginal lands.

In recent years, large-scale adoption of soil conservation practices have led to better outcomes with respect to erosion in much of MLRA, increasing the economic viability and long-term sustainability of Piedmont farms. Despite some success, water erosion remains one of the most important soil resource concerns in the MLRA.

Other major resource concerns include increasing conversion of prime farmland and farmland of statewide importance to urban uses. Throughout the MLRA, metropolitan areas are expanding into lands that have historically been used for timber or agriculture. This change in land use is occurring rapidly in the corridor called the Piedmont Crescent, which extends from Atlanta, Georgia, to Raleigh, North Carolina.

HISTORIC VEGETATION COVER
Over most of the Southern Piedmont uplands, the historic oak-hickory, or oak-hickory-pine forest, once covered large portions of the landscape. It was dominated by upland oaks, such as white oak (Quercus alba), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and southern red oak (Quercus falcata), with a smaller contribution from hickories (Carya spp.) and pines. The principal pine species are shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), and to the north and west, Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana). In the southernmost and easternmost portions of the MLRA, the historic montane longleaf pine forest, dominated by longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), shortleaf pine (P. echinata), and dry-site oaks, was found on ridgetops and steep south or west-facing slopes.

According to historic accounts, forests and woodlands of the past were generally more open and park-like, having been exposed to a more frequent fire regime. Piedmont prairies, likely maintained by Native Americans, were also reportedly common across the landscape, as were fire-maintained canebrakes along the streams (Trimble 1974; Daniels 1987; Griffith et al. 2002; Van Lear et al. 2004; Dearman and James 2019; Schomberg et al. 2020; USDA-NRCS 2022).

LRU notes

MLRA 136 is one of the largest MLRAs in the United States. It has a broad north-south and east-west extent and covers a wide range of elevations. The MLRA is partitioned by the mesic-thermic line, which divides the MLRA into mesic and thermic soil temperature regimes (figure 2.). The mesic soil temperature regime was delineated based on estimates of the native range of loblolly pine, which was historically absent in this part of the MLRA. In addition, this region is said to represent the northern and western limits of cotton production, an important crop to the south and east.

ESDs developed for this MLRA were split geographically into mesic and thermic ecological site concepts. Climate variation across the MLRA extent warrants the development of Land Resource Unit (LRU) classifications, to further subdivide the MLRA and support more precise Ecological Site Descriptions.

Classification relationships

APPLICABLE USNVC ASSOCIATIONS
CEGL007340 Platanus occidentalis - Liquidambar styraciflua / Carpinus caroliniana - Asimina triloba; CEGL007730 Platanus occidentalis - Celtis laevigata - Fraxinus pennsylvanica / Ilex decidua / Carex retroflexa; CEGL004418 Liquidambar styraciflua - Liriodendron tulipifera / Lindera benzoin / Arisaema triphyllum

APPLICABLE EPA ECOREGIONS
Level III: 45. Piedmont
Level IV: 45a. Southern Inner Piedmont; 45b. Southern Outer Piedmont; 45c. Carolina Slate Belt; 45f. Northern Outer Piedmont; 45g. Triassic Basins; 45i. Kings Mountain; 45d. Talladega Upland; 45h. Pine Mountain Ridges (EPA 2013).

APPLICABLE USFS ECOLOGICAL UNITS
Domain: Humid Temperate
Division: Subtropical
Ecological province: 231. Southeastern Mixed Forest
Ecological sections: 231I.Central Appalachian Piedmont; 231A. Southern Appalachian Piedmont (Cleland et al. 2007).

Based on the USGS physiographic classification system (Fenneman and Johnson 1946), most of MLRA 136 is in the Piedmont Upland section of the Piedmont province, in the Appalachian Highlands division.

Ecological site concept

This ecological site includes moist areas on active flood plains which are subject to regular overbank flooding of frequent or occasional frequency. It is geographically restricted to the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA. It is situated on flood plains, in relatively broad river valleys or along small stream bottoms, in which overbank flooding and alluvial deposition have created a more level surface than in the adjacent uplands. This environment benefits from ongoing deposition of nutrient-rich sediment, but it is subject to scouring and other impacts associated with flooding.

The reference state supports a mixture of bottomland hardwood species, including American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), and many others. These are diverse, distinctly multi-layered forests, often lacking a clear set of dominant species in the canopy. Dominant land uses include cropland, pasture and hayland, and wildlife habitat.

Soils on this ecological site are typically very deep, well drained to moderately well drained Inceptisols or Entisols. Parent materials are typically loamy, recent alluvial sediments. Due to regular overbank flooding, the distribution of soil organic matter decreases irregularly with depth.

Soils on this ecological site typically remain moist throughout the year. Seasonal periods of soil saturation and anaerobic conditions may be present at a depth of 24 inches or deeper. These conditions usually support diagnostic mesophytic plant species, such as southern sugar maple (Acer floridanum), bitternut hickory (Carya cordiformis), shagbark hickory (Carya ovata), hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), red mulberry (Morus rubra var. rubra), American beech (Fagus grandifolia), and white oak (Quercus alba), which are generally not abundant under wetter conditions. These species are not usually dominant in any stratum on this ecological site, but on flood plains their presence is a good indicator that the water table stays well below the upper layers of soil.

ES CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARY
• Thermic soil temperature regime
• Occurs on flood plains in river valleys, or along small stream bottoms
• Seasonal high water table: > 24 inches from the soil surface
• Soils: very deep, well drained to moderately well drained Inceptisols or Entisols, with an irregular decrease in soil organic matter with depth

Associated sites

PX136X00X630	Flood Plain Levee Forest, Sandy Found closer to the stream channel, on sandy natural levees of large river systems. In this setting, increased levels of sunlight can support higher herb cover. Moreover, the vegetation receives the brunt of the force associated with flooding and is often battered by floating debris. In addition, the seasonal high water table is usually shallower (72 inches or greater from the soil surface). This together with it's higher sand content, predisposes young trees to drought-related mortality.
PX136X00X610	Flood Plain Forest, Wet Found in slightly lower landscape positions, on wetter parts of the flood plain. The seasonal high water table is shallower (12-24 inches from the soil surface), supporting a greater proportion of obligate or facultative wetland indicator species. On broad flood plains, it typically sits further from the stream channel.
PX136X00X600	Flood Plain Forest, Very Wet Found in lower landscape positions, on wetter parts of the flood plain. The seasonal high water table is much shallower (0-12 inches from the soil surface), supporting a high cover of obligate wetland indicator species, along with a decrease in species diversity. On broad flood plains, it typically sits furthest from the stream channel, on concave depressional landforms such as backswamps, sloughs, and depressions.

PX136X00X630

Flood Plain Levee Forest, Sandy

Found closer to the stream channel, on sandy natural levees of large river systems. In this setting, increased levels of sunlight can support higher herb cover. Moreover, the vegetation receives the brunt of the force associated with flooding and is often battered by floating debris. In addition, the seasonal high water table is usually shallower (72 inches or greater from the soil surface). This together with it's higher sand content, predisposes young trees to drought-related mortality.

PX136X00X610

Flood Plain Forest, Wet

Found in slightly lower landscape positions, on wetter parts of the flood plain. The seasonal high water table is shallower (12-24 inches from the soil surface), supporting a greater proportion of obligate or facultative wetland indicator species. On broad flood plains, it typically sits further from the stream channel.

PX136X00X600

Flood Plain Forest, Very Wet

Found in lower landscape positions, on wetter parts of the flood plain. The seasonal high water table is much shallower (0-12 inches from the soil surface), supporting a high cover of obligate wetland indicator species, along with a decrease in species diversity. On broad flood plains, it typically sits furthest from the stream channel, on concave depressional landforms such as backswamps, sloughs, and depressions.

Similar sites

PX136X00X120	Mesic Temperature Regime, Flood Plain Forest, Moist The soil temperature regime is mesic, occurring outside of the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).
PX136X00X610	Flood Plain Forest, Wet The seasonal high water table is shallower (12-24 inches from the soil surface), supporting a greater proportion obligate or facultative wetland indicator species.
PX136X00X660	High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation Occurs on stream terraces and other alluvial landforms not subject to regular overbank flooding. Being found on more stable surfaces, the relative importance of bottomland oaks and other long-lived species tend to increase under reference conditions. Soil pH and natural fertility are usually lower on these older surfaces.

PX136X00X120

Mesic Temperature Regime, Flood Plain Forest, Moist

The soil temperature regime is mesic, occurring outside of the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).

PX136X00X610

Flood Plain Forest, Wet

The seasonal high water table is shallower (12-24 inches from the soil surface), supporting a greater proportion obligate or facultative wetland indicator species.

PX136X00X660

High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation

Occurs on stream terraces and other alluvial landforms not subject to regular overbank flooding. Being found on more stable surfaces, the relative importance of bottomland oaks and other long-lived species tend to increase under reference conditions. Soil pH and natural fertility are usually lower on these older surfaces.

Figure 1. EPA level IV ecoregions of the Southern Piedmont (45).

Figure 2. Spatial illustration of soil temperature regimes of the Southern Piedmont.

Figure 3. Spatial extent of this ecological site representing the major areas where this site is important on the landscape.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Platanus occidentalis (2) Celtis laevigata
Shrub	(1) Lindera benzoin (2) Ilex decidua
Herbaceous	(1) Boehmeria cylindrica (2) Chasmanthium latifolium

Legacy ID

F136XY620GA

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Physiographic features

This ecological site includes moist areas on active flood plains which are subject to regular overbank flooding of frequent or occasional frequency. It is situated in river valleys or along small stream bottoms in the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA.

On broad flood plains, this ecological site is typically found on flood plain flats behind a natural levee. Along small stream bottoms, it may occupy most, if not the entire width of the flood plain, or it may be intermingled with wetter flood plain ecological site concepts. Representative locations are nearly level or gently sloping, with a representative slope of 0 to 2 percent and a maximum slope of 3 percent.

On flood plains of the Southern Piedmont, Quaternary alluvial deposits can be as much as 250 feet thick, or as little as 4 feet thick. Rocks of the Piedmont basement underlie the alluvial fill at some depth, but the vegetation is not usually influenced by the local underlying geology.

Note: river valleys associated with Triassic Basins tend to be broader than in most other parts of the Southern Piedmont, irrespective of stream order, due to the high weatherability of Triassic sediments. Here, distinct landforms, such as stream terraces, flood plain flats, backswamps, and natural levees, tend to be better developed. This is known to have a strong influence over the vegetation communities that establish on a given site, allowing vegetation communities to sort out more neatly along gradients of hydroperiod, elevation above the river channel, and other flooding-related variables. At this time however, there is not enough data to support a geographic split between alluvial ecological site concepts associated with Triassic Basins (EPA ecoregion 45g) and those of other regions. Future ecological site work should consider targeting Triassic Basin river valleys to determine weather a distinct set of ecological site concepts is warranted, and if delineating these concepts across the landscape would be feasible.

Figure 4. Typical soil-landscape relationships of a large river flood plain in the Southern Piedmont. Toccoa soils are associated with this ecological site, depicted here on flood plain flats in a broad river valley.

Figure 5. Typical soil-landscape relationships of a small stream flood plain in the Southern Piedmont. Riverview soils are associated with this ecological site, depicted here along a small stream bottom.

Figure 6. Cross section of a flood plain along a large river system in the Southern Piedmont. Toccoa soils are associated with this ecological site.

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Landforms	(1) River valley > Flood plain (2) Piedmont > Flood plain
Runoff class	Negligible to low
Flooding duration	Brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	Frequent
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	270 – 990 ft
Slope	2%
Water table depth	24 – 60 in
Aspect	Aspect is not a significant factor

Table 3. Representative physiographic features (actual ranges)

Runoff class	Negligible to low
Flooding duration	Very brief (4 to 48 hours) to brief (2 to 7 days)
Flooding frequency	Occasional to frequent
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	140 – 2,100 ft
Slope	3%
Water table depth	18 – 999 in

Climatic features

On this ecological site, the average mean annual precipitation is 48 inches. On average, the rainiest months occur in July and August, as well as in March. The driest months occur in April, May, and October.

Table 4. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	161-189 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	192-225 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	45-51 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	153-196 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	181-236 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	43-55 in
Frost-free period (average)	174 days
Freeze-free period (average)	208 days
Precipitation total (average)	48 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 7. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 8. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 9. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 10. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 11. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 12. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) ROCK MILLS [USC00017025], Roanoke, AL
(2) ROCKFORD 3 ESE [USC00017020], Rockford, AL
(3) HEFLIN [USC00013775], Heflin, AL
(4) ASHLAND 3 ENE [USC00010369], Ashland, AL
(5) OPELIKA [USC00016129], Opelika, AL
(6) LA GRANGE 1N [USC00094949], LaGrange, GA
(7) CARROLLTON [USC00091640], Carrollton, GA
(8) TALBOTTON [USC00098535], Talbotton, GA
(9) NEWNAN 5N [USC00096335], Newnan, GA
(10) ATLANTA [USW00053819], Peachtree City, GA
(11) THOMASTON [USC00098661], Thomaston, GA
(12) EXPERIMENT [USC00093271], Griffin, GA
(13) ATLANTA FULTON CO AP [USW00003888], Mableton, GA
(14) DALLAS 7 NE [USC00092485], Dallas, GA
(15) MONTICELLO [USC00095988], Monticello, GA
(16) WATKINSVILLE 5 SSE [USW00063850], Watkinsville, GA
(17) CORNELIA [USC00092283], Cornelia, GA
(18) CUMMING 2N [USC00092408], Cumming, GA
(19) WASHINGTON 2 ESE [USC00099157], Washington, GA
(20) ELBERTON 2 N [USC00093060], Elberton, GA
(21) CLARKS HILL 1 W [USC00381726], Modoc, SC
(22) SALUDA [USC00387631], Saluda, SC
(23) CLEMSON OCONEE CO AP [USW00053850], Seneca, SC
(24) GREENVILLE DWTN AP [USW00013886], Greenville, SC
(25) LAURENS [USC00385017], Laurens, SC
(26) WINNSBORO [USC00389327], Winnsboro, SC
(27) SANTUCK [USC00387722], Union, SC
(28) SPARTANBURG 3 SSE [USC00388188], Spartanburg, SC
(29) SIMMS WTP [USC00387885], Chesnee, SC
(30) KERSHAW 1SW [USC00384690], Kershaw, SC
(31) WINTHROP UNIV [USC00389350], Rock Hill, SC
(32) NINETY NINE ISLANDS [USC00386293], Blacksburg, SC
(33) ROCK HILL YORK CO AP [USW00053871], Rock Hill, SC
(34) WADESBORO [USC00318964], Wadesboro, NC
(35) MONROE AP [USW00053872], Monroe, NC
(36) SHELBY 2 NNE [USC00317845], Shelby, NC
(37) FOREST CITY 8 W [USC00313152], Rutherfordton, NC
(38) ALBEMARLE [USC00310090], Albemarle, NC
(39) SANFORD 8 NE [USC00317656], Sanford, NC
(40) SILER CITY 2 N [USC00317924], Siler City, NC
(41) HAW RIVER 1E [USC00313919], Graham, NC
(42) CHAPEL HILL WILLIAMS AP [USW00093785], Chapel Hill, NC
(43) CLAYTON WTP [USC00311820], Clayton, NC
(44) LOUISBURG [USC00315123], Louisburg, NC
(45) RALEIGH DURHAM INTL AP [USW00013722], Raleigh, NC
(46) YANCEYVILLE 4 SE [USC00319704], Yanceyville, NC
(47) ARCOLA [USC00310241], Macon, NC
(48) HENDERSON 2 NNW [USC00313969], Henderson, NC
(49) ROXBORO 7 ESE [USC00317516], Roxboro, NC
(50) LAWRENCEVILLE 3 E [USC00444768], Freeman, VA
(51) CLARKSVILLE [USC00441746], Clarksville, VA
(52) JOHN H KERR DAM [USC00444414], Boydton, VA
(53) CHARLOTTE COURT HOUSE [USC00441585], Keysville, VA
(54) AMELIA COURTHOUSE 1 [USC00440187], Amelia Court House, VA
(55) CAMP PICKETT [USC00441322], Blackstone, VA
(56) CROZIER [USC00442142], Maidens, VA
(57) GREENBAY 3 NE [USC00443565], Burkeville, VA

Influencing water features

This ecological site occurs in riparian areas, on active flood plains which are subject to regular overbank flooding.

GROUNDWATER FEATURES
A seasonal high water table is apparent at a depth of 24 inches or below in representative pedons, generally during the months of December to May. On flood plains of the Southern Piedmont, the water table is tied to the level of the water in the channel, with groundwater generally moving from uplands towards the stream.

SURFACE WATER FEATURES
Flooding frequency on this ecological site is generally high, however the duration of flooding is usually brief. Flooding-related variables that can have an effect on species composition on this ecological site include 1) stream order and relative position within the watershed, 2) the width of the flood plain, 3) the relative position within the flood plain, 4) channel morphology, and 5) the shape and topography of the watershed. These and other factors produce flooding regimes with specific signatures.

Note: this ecological site concept includes flood plains associated with a wide range of stream orders, from as little as first order along small creeks, to as high as sixth order along large rivers. Stream order is known to have a strong effect on the frequency and duration of flooding, the dominant sources of soil water, and the natural vegetation that establishes in response to these factors. At this time however, it is not feasible to separate flood plain ecological site concepts based on stream order due to limitations in soil mapping (Mulholland and Lenat 1992; Alexander et al. 2015; Mathews et al. 2011).

Figure 13. An illustration of the effect of stream order on 1) the severity of overbank flooding, and 2) the ratio of soil water derived from overbank flooding to the amount derived from overland water and groundwater moving towards the stream. From Brinson (1993).

Soil features

Soils on this ecological site are typically very deep, well drained or moderately well drained Inceptisols and Entisols, which have an irregular decrease in organic matter distribution with depth. Redoximorphic features (iron and/or manganese depletions) may be found at depths of 24 inches or greater in representative pedons. Parent materials are typically loamy recent alluvial sediments. The alluvium may be stratified and some layers may have a relatively high sand or gravel content. These soils are typically in a fine-loamy or coarse-loamy particle size family.

Reaction is typically slightly acid to strongly acid (pH 5.1 to 6.5) throughout, though it can be closer to neutral under unusually rich site conditions. Natural fertility and available water capacity are typically high. Flooding is the principle limiting factor for most common land uses.

Soils on this ecological site have a thermic soil temperature regime, which is characterized by a mean annual soil temperature of 15°C to 22°C and a winter to summer temperature differential of 6°C or more in the subsoil.

Modal taxa include: Fluventic Dystrudepts, Oxyaquic Dystrudepts, Udifluvents
Modal soil series include: Congaree, Riverview, and Toccoa
Other soils attributed to this ecological site include Shellbluff, Starr, Oakboro, and Tuckahoe

Figure 14. An illustration of a soil profile belonging to the Riverview series, a representative soil series associated with this ecological site.

Figure 15. A soil profile of the Toccoa series.

Table 5. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Alluvium – igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock
Surface texture	(1) Loam (2) Fine sandy loam (3) Silt loam (4) Sandy loam
Family particle size	(1) Fine-loamy (2) Coarse-loamy
Drainage class	Moderately well drained to well drained
Permeability class	Moderately rapid to rapid
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-80in)	8 – 11 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in)	5.1 – 6.5
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	5%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	Not specified

Table 6. Representative soil features (actual values)

Drainage class	Moderately well drained to well drained
Permeability class	Moderately rapid to rapid
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-80in)	6 – 13 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-40in)	4.5 – 7.3
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	10%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	Not specified

Ecological dynamics

U.S. National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) associations that are consistent with reference conditions on this ecological site include CEGL007340 Platanus occidentalis - Liquidambar styraciflua / Carpinus caroliniana - Asimina triloba, which is typical of the upper piedmont in the southern part of the MLRA. In the lower piedmont, related vegetation is treated as CEGL007730 Platanus occidentalis - Celtis laevigata - Fraxinus pennsylvanica / Ilex decidua / Carex retroflexa. Along small stream bottoms and narrow river flood plains, CEGL004418 Liquidambar styraciflua - Liriodendron tulipifera / Lindera benzoin / Arisaema triphyllum, will likely apply to most examples. The above associations have slight differences, mostly in the shrub and herb layers, but the major canopy species, as well as most associates are comparable. A similar association, CEGL007330 Liquidambar styraciflua - (Liriodendron tulipifera), will apply to most young secondary examples (USNVC 2022).

MATURE FORESTS
The reference state supports a mixture of bottomland hardwood species. The forest typically has a closed canopy, though canopy gaps and standing dead trees are frequently interspersed. The canopy is diverse, often without a clear set of dominant species. Important canopy species include American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tulip poplar (Liriodendron tulipifera), sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), and black walnut (Juglans nigra), among others. Species composition varies with stream order, flood plain width, flooding frequency, latitude, elevation, and several other environmental factors.

Most of these species are capable of quickly colonizing and filling gaps, a valuable trait in environments characterized by frequent natural disturbances. Many of these species invest in rapid growth and early reproduction, a strategy often employed in unpredictable or changing environments. These tree species are also prolific seed producers, investing in small, easily dispersed seeds. Because riparian areas are subject to frequent disturbance events, including flooding, scouring, storm-related windthrow, deposition, and channel migration, these species can persist on a site indefinitely.

Bottomland oaks (Quercus michauxii, Q. shumardii, Q. nigra, Q. pagoda, Q. phellos, etc.) typically occupy a relatively small but important part of the canopy in mature stands. Comparatively speaking, these slower growing and slower to reproduce species are often scattered throughout the forest, and they are a good indicator of mature forest conditions, but they seldom make a very large contribution to the canopy or subcanopy layers on this ecological site. On the more stable portions of river valleys, such as stream terraces and on some broad flood plain flats, bottomland oaks are more likely to achieve and maintain dominance in mature examples.

In the reference state, the subcanopy is well-developed. Important subcanopy trees include American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), boxelder (Acer negundo), southern sugar maple (Acer floridanum), pawpaw (Asimina triloba), hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana), and flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), among others.

In the shrub layer, important species include northern spicebush (Lindera benzoin), possumhaw (Ilex decidua), blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea), and painted buckeye (Aesculus sylvatica). By far, the most important vine on this ecological site is eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans). This species can be oppressively abundant on flood plains and bottomlands of the Southern Piedmont.

The herb layer is not usually dense, except in canopy gaps, but species diversity is typically high. Characteristic forbs include smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata), white avens (Geum canadense), American hogpeanut (Amphicarpaea bracteata), rattlesnake fern (Botrychium virginianum), Canadian blacksnakeroot (Sanicula canadensis), and many others. Typical graminoids include Indian woodoats (Chasmanthium latifolium), sweet woodreed (Cinna arundinacea), Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus), and deertongue (Dichanthelium clandestinum). Numerous shrub and herb species associated with basic upland forests are also typical of flood plain forests. These base-loving species have a high nutrient requirement, satisfied here through ongoing deposition of nutrient-rich sediments.

Because of a variety of anthropogenic impacts, including changes to channel morphology, past selective or clearcut logging, installation of water impoundments, agriculture, and urban development, unaltered examples of the reference community are uncommon on the landscape today.

DYNAMICS OF NATURAL SUCCESSION
Regular overbank flooding is the main driver of ecological dynamics on this ecological site. Flood plains are continually dynamic, with the deposition of new sediment and the loss of old sediment in the form of scouring. Flooding can disturb vegetation through various mechanisms. Herbaceous plants are susceptible to being washed away or buried. Though sediment deposition is beneficial for fertility, heavy sediment deposition during the growing season has the potential to kill herbaceous plants, and even the seedlings or saplings of trees and shrubs. On rare occasions during the most severe floods, parts of the forest may be eroded or washed away entirely. Occasional tornadoes and hurricanes can also be a significant source of natural disturbance on this ecological site.

Shallow root systems allow flood plain trees to use the uppermost region of the soil, where anaerobic conditions occur over shorter intervals, but this also makes them more vulnerable to windthrow. On the typical flood plain, trunks of wind-toppled trees often lie scattered across the forest floor. The openings created by downed or standing dead trees increase the abundance and diversity of herbaceous plants.

On most landscapes in the Southeast, forest succession, or the predictable progression from light-demanding species to shade-tolerant tree species, continues until a major disturbance occurs. On flood plains however, flood-tolerance interacts with shade-tolerance, producing substantially different and complex successional patterns that are rarely observed in upland forests. It is believed that these interactions allow species with pioneering traits to maintain perpetual importance in many flood plain settings of the Southeast. Unless the flooding regime or hydrology is altered by some means, either natural or human-induced, a near steady-state subclimax community of predominantly light-demanding, but flood-tolerant trees can be expected to persist.

This ecological site is particularly vulnerable to invasion by Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), a non-native shrub or small tree which was introduced in the mid-nineteenth century. Many thousands of acres of flood plain forests and bottomlands now have a nearly continuous layer of Chinese privet, excluding most of the native flora beneath. Nepalese browntop, or Japanese stiltgrass as it is often known (Microstegium vimineum), is another widespread non-native species that thrives on flood plains and other low-lying areas. It too can have a dramatic impact on native understory vegetation. These species usually require disturbance to gain a foothold, but once they do, they are remarkably persistent due to their reproductive capacity and tolerance for shade.

YOUNG SECONDARY FORESTS
Young secondary forests associated with this ecological site are usually even-aged, less diverse, and more likely to be invaded by non-native understory species. These forests are more common on the landscape today due to the long history of agricultural use and logging on flood plains of the Southern Piedmont. Typically, these forests are strongly dominated by only a handful of species, of which sweetgum (L. styraciflua) is probably most common overall. The dominance of sweetgum (L. styraciflua) and other early pioneers declines as the forest matures, though many of these species remain important in mature stands as well, albeit to a lesser extent. Other characteristic species of young secondary flood plain forests include box elder (Acer negundo), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).

HUMAN IMPACTS
Adding to the complexity of deciphering successional patterns on flood plains of the Piedmont, are the potential for human-induced changes to the flooding regime and hydrology. Accelerated flood plain aggradation is well-documented in the Southern Piedmont, as a consequence of past agricultural practices and other human activities. From the colonial era forward, until soil conservation measures were adopted more widely, floodwaters of the recent past laid down sediment in a remarkably short period of time, as compared to estimates of the pre-colonial era. This, along with runoff-induced incision of stream channels, gradually produced streams with deeper channels than in the past, effectively channelizing the flow of water in many places. As might be expected, reduced connectivity of rivers and flood plains ultimately has an impact on flood plain ecological processes.

At the present time, as a result of changes to channel and flood plain morphology, overbank flows occur less frequently in the region as a whole than in the past. At the same time, the risk of flooding on some downstream flood plains has likely increased. Channel incision can also affect the movement of groundwater on flood plains, by increasing hydraulic gradients towards the stream, thereby lowering water tables across the flood plain.

Some argue that these changes have resulted in a shift toward less flood-tolerant tree species in the affected areas over time. If so, this trend will likely continue, though stream channel restoration can be utilized to counteract some of these effects (Wharton 1978; Wharton et al. 1982; Barry 1980; Peet and Christensen 1980; Schafale and Weakley 1990; Shear et al. 1997; Ruhlman and Nutter 1999; Schilling et al. 2004; Jackson et al. 2005; Schlindwein 2006; Allen et al. 2007; Matthews et al. 2011; Spira 2011; Schafale 2012a, 2012b; Edwards et al. 2013; Turner et al. 2015; Dearman and James 2019; Fleming et al. 2021).

SPECIES LIST
Canopy layer: Platanus occidentalis, Celtis laevigata, Fraxinus pennsylvanica, Liriodendron tulipifera, Liquidambar styraciflua, Juglans nigra, Quercus michauxii, Ulmus americana, Ulmus alata, Carya cordiformis, Quercus shumardii, Quercus nigra, Quercus phellos, Quercus pagoda, Carya ovata, Quercus alba, Fagus grandifolia, Pinus taeda, Populus deltoides, Gleditsia triacanthos,

Subcanopy layer: Carpinus caroliniana, Acer negundo, Acer floridanum, Asimina triloba, Acer rubrum, Ostrya virginiana, Cornus florida, Prunus serotina, Diospyros virginiana, Fraxinus americana, Ilex opaca, Ulmus alata, Ulmus rubra, Morus rubra var. rubra, Crataegus viridis, Halesia tetraptera, Halesia carolina

Vines/lianas: Toxicodendron radicans, Smilax rotundifolia, Smilax bona-nox, Smilax tamnoides, Smilax glauca, Clematis virginiana, Bignonia capreolata, Campsis radicans, Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Menispermum canadense, Vitis rotundifolia, Vitis cinerea var. baileyana, Vitis vulpina, Passiflora lutea, Polygonum scandens var. scandens, Matelea gonocarpos, Dioscorea oppositifolia (I), Lonicera japonica (I), Clematis terniflora (I), Celastrus orbiculatus (I)

Shrub layer: Lindera benzoin, Ilex decidua, Viburnum prunifolium, Euonymus americanus, Ilex decidua, Ilex opaca, Aesculus sylvatica, Arundinaria gigantea, Aesculus pavia, Staphylea trifolia, Symphoricarpos orbiculatus, Xanthorhiza simplicissima, Ligustrum sinense (I), Rosa multiflora (I)

Herb layer - forbs: Boehmeria cylindrica, Geum canadense, Rudbeckia laciniata, Amphicarpaea bracteata, Botrychium virginianum, Sanicula canadensis, Verbesina alternifolia, Asarum canadense, Botrychium dissectum, Arisaema triphyllum, Verbesina occidentalis, Cryptotaenia canadensis, Maianthemum racemosum ssp. racemosum, Polygonatum biflorum, Laportea canadensis, Podophyllum peltatum, Sanguinaria canadensis, Arisaema dracontium, Polygonum virginianum, Phryma leptostachya, Galium triflorum, Polystichum acrostichoides, Athyrium filix-femina ssp. asplenioides, Parathelypteris noveboracensis, Botrychium biternatum, Viola striata, Lactuca floridana, Oxalis florida, Elephantopus carolinianus, Prunella vulgaris, Hexastylis arifolia, Mitchella repens, Claytonia virginica, Pilea pumila, Prenanthes altissima, Uvularia sessilifolia, Conoclinium coelestinum, Pleopeltis polypodioides, Stellaria pubera, Osmorhiza longistylis, Eurybia divaricata, Corydalis flavula, Nemophila aphylla, Galium aparine, Galium circaezans, Smallanthus uvedalius, Ambrosia trifida, Allium canadense, Geranium maculatum, Oxalis stricta, Ranunculus abortivus, Stellaria media (I), Glechoma hederacea (I), Lamium purpureum (I), Veronica hederifolia (I)

Herb layer - graminoids: Chasmanthium latifolium, Cinna arundinacea, Elymus virginicus, Dichanthelium clandestinum, Carex (grayi, tribuloides, blanda, amphibola, flaccosperma, radiata, rosea, oxylepis, etc.), Poa autumnalis, Dichanthelium boscii, Dichanthelium sphaerocarpon var. isophyllum, Elymus glabriflorus, Dichanthelium laxiflorum, Luzula acuminata, Luzula echinata, Brachyelytrum erectum, Bromus pubescens, Elymus hystrix, Microstegium vimineum (I),

(I) = introduced

State and transition model

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Click on state and transition labels to scroll to the respective text

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State: Flood Plain Forest

2. Secondary Succession State

3. Pasture/Hayland State

4. Cropland State

T1A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T1B	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T1C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T2A	-	Long-term natural succession.
T2B	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T2C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T3A	-	Long-term cessation of grazing.
T3B	-	Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T4A	-	Agricultural abandonment.
T4B	-	Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Forested Successional Phase

2.2. Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

2.3. Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

2.1A	-	Clearcut logging.
2.2A	-	Natural succession.
2.2B	-	Brush management.
2.3A	-	Natural succession.

State 4 submodel, plant communities

4.1. Conservation-management Cropland Phase

4.2. Conventional-management Cropland Phase

4.1A	-	Conventional tillage is reintroduced.
4.2A	-	Implementation of conservation tillage and other soil conservation practices

State 1
Reference State: Flood Plain Forest

Figure 16. A mature flood plain forest dominated by sugarberry, sweetgum, American elm, etc., with an understory of southern sugar maple, box elder, and northern spicebush. Situated along a major river, on Riverview loam, 0 to 2 percent slopes, occasionally flooded.

This mature forest state supports a diverse mixture of bottomland hardwood species.

Characteristics and indicators. Stands are uneven-aged with a broad diameter class distribution. The forest typically has a closed canopy, though canopy gaps and standing dead trees are frequently interspersed. The canopy is diverse, often without a clear set of dominant species. Bottomland oaks (Q. michauxii, Q. shumardii, Q. nigra, Q. pagoda, Q. phellos, etc.) typically occupy a relatively small but important portion of the canopy. Their presence is a good indicator of mature forest conditions. In contrast with young, recently disturbed stands, native species are more likely to dominate the shrub and herb layers.

Dominant plant species

American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
sugarberry (Celtis laevigata), tree
green ash (Fraxinus pennsylvanica), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
black walnut (Juglans nigra), tree
American hornbeam (Carpinus caroliniana), tree
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
southern sugar maple (Acer floridanum), tree
pawpaw (Asimina triloba), tree
water oak (Quercus nigra), tree
northern spicebush (Lindera benzoin), shrub
possumhaw (Ilex decidua), shrub
blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), shrub
giant cane (Arundinaria gigantea), shrub
devil's darning needles (Clematis virginiana), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
painted buckeye (Aesculus sylvatica), shrub
crossvine (Bignonia capreolata), shrub
Indian woodoats (Chasmanthium latifolium), grass
sweet woodreed (Cinna arundinacea), grass
Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus), grass
deertongue (Dichanthelium clandestinum), grass
Gray's sedge (Carex grayi), grass
blunt broom sedge (Carex tribuloides), grass
eastern woodland sedge (Carex blanda), grass
eastern narrowleaf sedge (Carex amphibola), grass
autumn bluegrass (Poa autumnalis), grass
Bosc's panicgrass (Dichanthelium boscii), grass
smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), other herbaceous
cutleaf coneflower (Rudbeckia laciniata), other herbaceous
white avens (Geum canadense), other herbaceous
American hogpeanut (Amphicarpaea bracteata), other herbaceous
rattlesnake fern (Botrychium virginianum), other herbaceous
Canadian blacksnakeroot (Sanicula canadensis), other herbaceous
wingstem (Verbesina alternifolia), other herbaceous
Canadian wildginger (Asarum canadense), other herbaceous
cutleaf grapefern (Botrychium dissectum), other herbaceous
Jack in the pulpit (Arisaema triphyllum), other herbaceous
yellow crownbeard (Verbesina occidentalis), other herbaceous

State 2
Secondary Succession State

This state develops in the immediate aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Which species colonize a particular location in the wake of a disturbance does involve a considerable degree of chance. It also depends a great deal on the type, duration, and magnitude of the disturbance event.

Characteristics and indicators. Plant age distribution is usually even.

Community 2.1
Forested Successional Phase

This successional phase develops in the wake of long-term agricultural abandonment, logging, storm-related catastrophic tree mortality, or other large-scale disturbances that have led to canopy removal in the recent past. It is typically a closed canopy forest dominated by bottomland hardwoods, or a mixture of bottomland hardwoods and pines. Unlike mature flood plain forests, which have a characteristically diverse canopy layer, young secondary forests of this type are typically dominated by only a handful of species. Stands are usually even-aged and tend to have an abundance of non-native species in the understory.

Forest overstory. Representative canopy species include sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), box elder (Acer negundo), American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), red maple (Acer rubrum), and loblolly pine (Pinus taeda). All of these species need not be present in a particular forest patch. Frequently, two or three species are strongly dominant and some may be absent altogether. Bottomland oaks are typically absent in the canopy.

Forest understory. In the shrub layer, Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) is often strongly dominant, appearing alongside northern spicebush (Lindera benzoin), and other native species.

Several vines are common in the understory, notably eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), devil's darning needles (Clematis virginiana), several species of greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia, S. bona-nox, S. tamnoides, S. glauca), and many others.

In the herb layer, Nepalese browntop, or Japanese stiltgrass as it is commonly known (Microstegium vimineum) is often abundant. This non-native bamboo-like grass gains a foothold after disturbance.

Dominant plant species

sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
American sycamore (Platanus occidentalis), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
northern spicebush (Lindera benzoin), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
devil's darning needles (Clematis virginiana), shrub
American holly (Ilex opaca), shrub
Chinese yam (Dioscorea oppositifolia), shrub
sweet autumn virginsbower (Clematis terniflora), shrub
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
Gray's sedge (Carex grayi), grass
blunt broom sedge (Carex tribuloides), grass
eastern woodland sedge (Carex blanda), grass
eastern narrowleaf sedge (Carex amphibola), grass
deertongue (Dichanthelium clandestinum), grass
Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus), grass
sweet woodreed (Cinna arundinacea), grass
Indian woodoats (Chasmanthium latifolium), grass
ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea), other herbaceous
smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), other herbaceous
wingstem (Verbesina alternifolia), other herbaceous
common chickweed (Stellaria media), other herbaceous
stickywilly (Galium aparine), other herbaceous
wild garlic (Allium vineale), other herbaceous
American hogpeanut (Amphicarpaea bracteata), other herbaceous
Carolina elephantsfoot (Elephantopus carolinianus), other herbaceous
purple deadnettle (Lamium purpureum), other herbaceous
ivyleaf speedwell (Veronica hederifolia), other herbaceous

Community 2.2
Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

This successional phase is dominated by shrubs and vines, along with seedlings of bottomland hardwoods and pines. It grades into the forested successional phase as tree seedlings become saplings and begin to occupy more of the canopy cover.

Forest overstory. Non-native species usually occupy a large portion of the vine or shrub cover in most examples, Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) being the most troublesome species on this ecological site. Other common shrub species include black elderberry (Sambucus nigra) and blackberry (Rubus spp.).

Characteristic vines include poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), devil's darning needles (Clematis virginiana), and several species of greenbrier (Smilax rotundifolia, S. bona-nox, S. tamnoides, S. glauca).

Dominant plant species

boxelder (Acer negundo), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), tree
loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), tree
devil's walkingstick (Aralia spinosa), tree
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
devil's darning needles (Clematis virginiana), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
black elderberry (Sambucus nigra), shrub
multiflora rose (Rosa multiflora), shrub
trumpet creeper (Campsis radicans), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
eastern baccharis (Baccharis halimifolia), shrub
sweet autumn virginsbower (Clematis terniflora), shrub
deertongue (Dichanthelium clandestinum), grass
velvet panicum (Dichanthelium scoparium), grass
Virginia wildrye (Elymus virginicus), grass
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
wingstem (Verbesina alternifolia), other herbaceous
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
wrinkleleaf goldenrod (Solidago rugosa ssp. rugosa), other herbaceous
hairy leafcup (Smallanthus uvedalius), other herbaceous
smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
American hogpeanut (Amphicarpaea bracteata), other herbaceous
Japanese climbing fern (Lygodium japonicum), other herbaceous

Community 2.3
Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

This transient community is composed of the first herbaceous invaders in the aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale natural disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Species composition is highly variable at this stage of succession. In addition to the named species, other herbaceous pioneers common to this ecological site include spotted beebalm (Monarda punctata), field pansy (Viola bicolor), beefsteakplant (Perilla frutescens), common chickweed (Stellaria media), common cinquefoil (Potentilla simplex), Oriental false hawksbeard (Youngia japonica), American burnweed (Erechtites hieraciifolius), American pokeweed (Phytolacca americana), Canadian horseweed (Conyza canadensis), false daisy (Eclipta prostrata), hairy white oldfield aster (Symphyotrichum pilosum), evening primrose (Oenothera spp.), ground ivy (Glechoma hederacea), and many others.

Resilience management. If the user wishes to maintain this community/phase for wildlife or pollinator habitat, a prescribed burn, mowing, or prescribed grazing will be needed at least once annually to prevent community pathway 2.3A. To that end, as part of long-term maintenance, periodic overseeding of wildlife or pollinator seed mixtures can be helpful in ensuring the viability of certain desired species and maintaining the desired composition of species for user goals.

Dominant plant species

devil's darning needles (Clematis virginiana), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
velvet panicum (Dichanthelium scoparium), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
field paspalum (Paspalum laeve), grass
deertongue (Dichanthelium clandestinum), grass
annual bluegrass (Poa annua), grass
barnyardgrass (Echinochloa crus-galli), grass
smallspike false nettle (Boehmeria cylindrica), other herbaceous
stickywilly (Galium aparine), other herbaceous
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
annual ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), other herbaceous
wrinkleleaf goldenrod (Solidago rugosa ssp. rugosa), other herbaceous
wingstem (Verbesina alternifolia), other herbaceous
beggarticks (Bidens), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), other herbaceous
great ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), other herbaceous
bitter dock (Rumex obtusifolius), other herbaceous

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.3

The forested successional phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

The shrub-dominated successional phase naturally moves towards the forested successional phase through natural succession.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3

The shrub-dominated successional phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through brush management, including herbicide application, mechanical removal, prescribed grazing, or fire.

Context dependence. Note: if the user wishes to use this community pathway to create wildlife or pollinator habitat, please contact a local NRCS office for a species list specific to the area of interest and user needs. If the user wishes to maintain the shrub-dominated successional phase long term, for wildlife habitat or other uses, periodic use of this community pathway is necessary to prevent community pathway 2.2A, which happens inevitably unless natural succession is set back through disturbance.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2

The herbaceous early successional phase naturally moves towards the shrub-dominated successional phase through natural succession.

State 3
Pasture/Hayland State

This converted state is dominated by herbaceous forage species.

Resilience management. Flooding: This ecological site is subject to regular overbank flooding, particularly in late winter and early spring. The duration of flooding is usually short-lived, though pastures may remain wet for longer periods. Landowners will need access to additional pasture or housing that is not subject to flooding, on which to move livestock during the cooler months. Overgrazing and High Foot Traffic: In areas that are subject to high foot traffic from livestock and equipment, and/or long-term overgrazing, unpalatable weedy species tend to invade, as most desirable forage species are less competitive under these conditions. High risk areas include locations where livestock congregate for water, shade, or feed, and in travel lanes, gates, and other areas of heavy use. Plant species that are indicative of overgrazing or excessive foot traffic on this ecological site include buttercup (Ranunculus spp.), curly dock (Rumex crispus), bitter dock (Rumex obtusifolius), Virginia buttonweed (Diodia virginiana), Oriental lady's thumb (Polygonum cespitosum var. longisetum), Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), small carpetgrass (Arthraxon hispidus), nimblewill (Muhlenbergia schreberi), Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), and common rush (Juncus effusus), among others. An overabundance of these species, along with poor plant vigor and areas of bare soil, may imply that excessive foot traffic and/or overgrazing is a concern, either in the present or in the recent past. Brush Encroachment: Brush encroachment can be problematic in some pastures, particularly near fence lines where there is often a ready seed source. Pastures subject to low stocking density and long-duration grazing rotations can also be susceptible to encroachment from woody plants. Shorter grazing rotations of higher stocking density can help alleviate pressure from shrubs and vines with low palatability or thorny stems. Clipping behind grazing rotations, annual brush hogging, and multispecies grazing systems (cattle with or followed by goats) can also be helpful. Common woody invaders of pasture on this ecological site include Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), blackberry (Rubus spp.), rose (Rosa spp.), and common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana).

Dominant plant species

tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
Bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon), grass
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), grass
orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), grass
eastern gamagrass (Tripsacum dactyloides), grass
perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), grass
sedge (Carex), grass
rush (Juncus), grass
white clover (Trifolium repens), other herbaceous
red clover (Trifolium pratense), other herbaceous
vetch (Vicia), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
narrowleaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata), other herbaceous

State 4
Cropland State

This converted state produces food or fiber for human uses. It is dominated by domesticated crop species, along with typical weedy invaders of cropland.

Community 4.1
Conservation-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the practice of no-tillage or strip-tillage, and other soil conservation practices. Though no-till systems offer many benefits, several weedy species tend to be more problematic under this type of management system. In contrast with conventional tillage systems, problematic species in no-till systems include biennial or perennial weeds, owing to the fact that tillage is no longer used in weed management.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous

Community 4.2
Conventional-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the recurrent use of tillage as a management tool. Due to the frequent disturbance regime, weedy invaders tend to be annual herbaceous species that reproduce quickly and are prolific seed producers.

Resilience management. The potential for soil loss is high under this management system. Measures should be put in place to limit erosion.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
grain sorghum (Sorghum bicolor ssp. bicolor), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous

Pathway 4.1A
Community 4.1 to 4.2

The conservation-management cropland phase can shift to the conventional-management cropland phase through cessation of conservation tillage practices and the reintroduction of conventional tillage practices.

Context dependence. Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after reintroduction of conventional tillage practices. These changes continue to manifest as conventional tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Pathway 4.2A
Community 4.2 to 4.1

The conventional-management cropland phase can be brought into the conservation-management cropland phase through the implementation of one of several conservation tillage options, including no-tillage or strip-tillage, along with implementation of other soil conservation practices.

Context dependence. Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after implementation of conservation tillage. These changes continue to manifest as conservation tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

The reference state can transition to the secondary succession state through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The reference state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. Herbicide applications, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 4

The reference state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 1

The secondary succession state can transition to the reference state through long-term natural succession.

Constraints to recovery. Even with long-term natural succession, non-native species that gain a foothold after disturbance may still be problematic in the understory of flood plain forests nearing maturity. It is unknown whether the understory will eventually approach the composition of old-growth stands without significant human intervention. Species such as Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense) and Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum) may become fixtures in mature flood plain forests of the near future, due to their reproductive capacity and tolerance for shade. The importance of these weedy invaders will likely decline over time, though the extent to which they will persist in the long-term absence of anthropogenic disturbance is unknown.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 3

The secondary succession state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning wooded or semi-wooded land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 4

The secondary succession state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, 4) weed control, 5) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking may be needed to successfully transition land that has been fallow for some time back to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the secondary succession state through long-term cessation of grazing.

Transition T3B
State 3 to 4

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the cropland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) applications of fertilizer/lime, 3) weed control, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

The cropland state can transition to the secondary succession state through agricultural abandonment.

Transition T4B
State 4 to 3

The cropland state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) weed control, and 3) planting of perennial forage grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. To convert cropland to pasture or hayland, weed control and good seed-soil contact are important. It is also critical to review the labels of herbicides used for weed control and on the previous crop. Many herbicides have plant-back restrictions, which if not followed could carryover and kill forage seedlings as they germinate. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Additional community tables

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Data collection and analysis of field data will be performed during the Verification Stage of ESD development.

Other references

Allen, B.P., P. C. Goebel, W.J. Mitsch, et al. 2007. Vegetation dynamics and response to disturbance, in floodplain forest ecosystems with a focus on lianas. PhD Thesis. Ohio State University. Columbus, OH.

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Brinson, M.M. 1993. Changes in the functioning of wetlands along environmental gradients. Wetlands. 13(2):65-74.

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C.A. Carpenter, W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections for the conterminous United States. General Technical Report WO-76D. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Washington, D.C.

Daniel, C.P., Platt, R.B. 1968. Direct and indirect effects of short term ionizing radiation on old-field succession. Ecological Monographs. 38(1):1-30.

Daniels, R.B. 1987. Soil Erosion and Degradation in the Southern Piedmont of the USA. In: M.G. Wolman, F.G.A. Fournier (eds.) Land Transformation in Agriculture. John Wiley and Sons. New York, NY.

Dearman, T.L., L.A. James. 2019. Patterns of legacy sediment deposits in a small South Carolina Piedmont catchment, USA. Geomorphology. 343(15):1-14.

Edwards, L., J., Ambrose, and L.K. Kirkman. 2013. Piedmont Ecoregion. In: L. Edwards et al., editors, The natural communities of Georgia. University of Georgia Press, Athens, GA. 257-345.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2013. Level III and IV ecoregions of the continental
United States. National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory. Corvallis, Oregon. Map scale 1:3,000,000.

Fenneman, N.M., Johnson D.W. 1946. Physiographic Divisions of the Conterminous U.S. U.S. Geological Survey. Washington, DC.

Fleming, G. P., K. D. Patterson, and K. Taverna. 2021. The natural communities of Virginia: A classification of ecological community groups and community types. Third approximation. Version 3.3. Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of Natural Heritage, Richmond, VA. [http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural-heritage/natural-communities/]

Griffith, G.E., J.M. Omernik, J.A. Comstock, M.P. Schafale, W.H. McNab, D.R. Lenat, T.F. MacPherson, J.B. Glover, V.B. Shelburne. 2002. Ecoregions of North Carolina and South Carolina. United States Geological Survey. Reston, Virginia.

Jackson, C.R., J.K. Martin, D.S. Leigh, L.T. West. 2005. A southeastern piedmont watershed sediment budget: Evidence for a multi-millennial agricultural legacy. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 60(6):298-310.

Loewenstein, N.J., E.F. Loewenstein. 2005. Non-native plants in the understory of riparian forests across a land use gradient in the Southeast. Urban Ecosystems. 8:79-91.

Matthews, E.M., R.K. Peet and A.S. Weakley. 2011. Classification and description of alluvial plant communities of the Piedmont region, North Carolina, U.S.A. Applied Vegetation Science. 14:485-505.

Mulholland, P., D. Lenat. 1992. Streams of the southeastern piedmont, Atlantic drainage. In: C.T. Hackney, S. Marshall Adams, W.A. Martin (eds.) Biodiversity of the Southeastern United States - Aquatic Communities. John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Hoboken, NJ.

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Contributors

Yogev Erez
Dee Pederson

Approval

Charles Stemmans, 5/02/2025

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	05/05/2025
Approved by	Charles Stemmans
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Presence of water flow patterns:
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:

Sub-dominant:

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Perennial plant reproductive capability:

Download reference sheet

Click on box and path labels to scroll to the respective text.

Ecosystem states

1. Reference State: Flood Plain Forest

2. Secondary Succession State

3. Pasture/Hayland State

4. Cropland State

T1A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T1B	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T1C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T2A	-	Long-term natural succession.
T2B	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T2C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T3A	-	Long-term cessation of grazing.
T3B	-	Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T4A	-	Agricultural abandonment.
T4B	-	Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.