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Ecological site PX136X00X340

Mesic Temperature Regime, Acidic Upland Colluvial Forest

Last updated: 5/02/2025
Accessed: 05/19/2025

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General information

Provisional. A provisional ecological site description has undergone quality control and quality assurance review. It contains a working state and transition model and enough information to identify the ecological site.

MLRA notes

Major Land Resource Area (MLRA): 136X–Southern Piedmont

This MLRA is on a large piedmont underlain by metamorphic and igneous bedrock. It stretches from north-central Virginia to east-central Alabama, running parallel to the Appalachian highlands to the northwest and the Atlantic coast to the southeast.

MLRA 136 has only subtle climatic differences with MLRA 148 (Northern Piedmont), with which it shares a common geologic origin. This adjacent MLRA sits to the north. Along the fall line, it shares a boundary with MLRA 133A (Southern Coastal Plain), MLRA 137 (Carolina and Georgia Sand Hills), and 133C (Gulf Coastal Plain). Here, unconsolidated Coastal Plain sediments intersect the much older Piedmont bedrock. Along it's northwestern boundary, it sits adjacent to MLRAs 130B (Southern Blue Ridge), 130A (Northern Blue Ridge), and 128 (Southern Appalachian Ridges and Valleys). These MLRAs are distinguished from the Southern Piedmont by topographic and elevational differences, as well as differences in the age, origin, and degree of metamorphism of the underlying bedrock.

Five states are intersected by the MLRA, including North Carolina (29 percent), Georgia (27 percent), Virginia (20 percent), South Carolina (17 percent), and Alabama (7 percent). The MLRA extent makes up about 63,720 square miles (165,034 square kilometers).

MLRA PHYSIOGRAPHY
The landscape is generally rolling to hilly, with a well-defined drainage pattern. Streams have dissected the original Piedmont plateau, forming narrow ridgetops, somewhat broad interfluves, and short, steep side slopes adjacent to the streams and drainageways. With some exceptions, the valley floors are generally narrow and make up about 10 percent or less of the land area. The associated stream terraces are generally small and of minor extent.

The landscape is moderately dissected overall, with isolated erosional remnants (monadnocks) and other areas of high topographic relief interspersed. Over most of the MLRA, elevation ranges from approximately 325 to 1,315 feet (100 to 400 meters), with elevations generally increasing toward the Appalachian Highlands, in the upper Piedmont, and decreasing toward the Coastal Plain, in the lower Piedmont.

The major rivers that cross this area en route to the ocean include, from north to south, the James, Roanoke, Cape Fear, Savannah, Altamaha, Chattahoochee, and Alabama Rivers. These rivers typically originate within the Piedmont or in the Blue Ridge. They flow east and south across the Coastal Plain and empty into the Atlantic Ocean or the Gulf of America.

MLRA GEOLOGY
Precambrian and Paleozoic metamorphic and igneous rocks underlie almost all of this MLRA. The dominant metamorphic rock types include gneiss, schist, slate, argillite, and phyllite, among others. Dominant igneous rock types include granite and other related felsic crystalline rocks. Mafic intrusive rocks, including gabbro, diabase, amphibolite, and other dark colored rocks, underlie a minority of the upland landscape. These mafic intrusions crop out in the form of dikes and sills, and often weather to produce soils high in base cations.

The Carolina Slate Belt runs lengthwise through the east-central part of the MLRA, in southern Virginia, North Carolina, South Carolina, and the eastern-most part of the Georgia Piedmont. This region is underlain by fine-grained metasedimentary and metavolcanic rock, which generally weathers to produce soils high in silt.

From Virginia to North Carolina, and in a single county in South Carolina, fault-bounded Triassic Basins are scattered amongst the igneous and metamorphic uplands. These basins are underlain by Triassic and Jurassic siltstone, shale, sandstone, and mudstone, which were laid down in response to continental rifting and subsequent erosion during the Mesozoic era.

MLRA SOILS
The dominant soil orders of the MLRA are Ultisols, Inceptisols, and Alfisols. Ultisols and Alfisols are typically found on more stable landforms, such as interfluves, gentle hillslopes, broad ridgetops, and stream terraces, while Inceptisols are typically found on less stable landforms, including flood plains, steep hillslopes, and narrow ridgetops.

Soils of the region predominantly have a thermic temperature regime, a udic moisture regime, and generally have kaolinitic or mixed mineralogy. In the upper Piedmont of Virginia and North Carolina however, soils have a mesic soil temperature regime, as depicted in figure 2. The mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA is oriented from northeast to southwest and occupies approximately 18 percent of the MLRA extent, or 11,729 square miles (30,377 square kilometers).

Broadly speaking, soils of the Southern Piedmont uplands are shallow to very deep, well drained, and loamy or clayey. Soils of the river valleys are generally very deep, well to poorly drained, and loamy. Soils tend to be finer-textured than in Coastal Plain regions.

MLRA CLIMATE
In general, precipitation is evenly distributed throughout the year in this MLRA, with occasional drought-like conditions extending from late summer into autumn. During the growing season, most of the rainfall comes from high-intensity, convective thunderstorms. Significant moisture also comes from the movement of warm and cold fronts across the MLRA from November to April. High amounts of rain can also occur during hurricanes, usually during the months of August through October.

Over most of the MLRA, snowfall is typically light, though overall, the mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA features colder temperatures, more snowfall, and a shorter growing season than in the thermic portion. The cooler climate in this region supports an increase in species with northern or Blue Ridge affinities. Both the mean annual temperature and the length of the freeze-free period increase from north to south and with decreasing elevation from the upper to the lower Piedmont.

MLRA LAND USE AND RESOURCES
Once largely cultivated, much of this region is now planted to loblolly pine or has reverted to successional pine and hardwood forests. The more productive lands support small to medium-size family farms that produce crops and livestock, while the less productive lands have been in forest for some time. Most of the open areas are used for grazing beef cattle, though in years past, dairy cattle were also important to the local economy. The principal crops of the region include corn, soybeans, and small grains. Burley tobacco remains a crop of local importance. Cotton is grown in the thermic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA.

Several major land cover transformations have occurred in the Southern Piedmont over the past several centuries; from open woodlands sculpted by fire, to farmland, to closed forests and planted pine, past land uses have played an outsized role in shaping present-day soils and vegetation patterns in the region. Land-use intensity peaked with the arrival of the industrial revolution, which gradually increased demand for textiles. Cotton became the dominant crop over much of the region.

In spite of early successes, two centuries of poor management practices accelerated soil erosion, stripping away the fertility and moisture-supplying capacity of soils. In addition to soil losses in the uplands, legacy sediments derived from the eroded land rapidly accumulated in the river valleys below, often leading to changes in hydrology and flooding frequency.

After being stripped of it's loamy topsoil, many areas of the Piedmont had been so badly eroded as to render the land unsuitable or economically impractical for agriculture. The effects of erosion were widespread, with cumulative soil loss estimates ranging from 5 to 10 inches on average. The steeper slopes, which had often been cleared and farmed at the height of the Cotton era, generally suffered greater losses. By the 1930's, crop production was in rapid decline in the Southern Piedmont. The loss of soil productivity due to erosion, losses to the cotton boll weevil, development of synthetic fibers, and the onset of the Great Depression all contributed to rapid abandonment of cropland. By 1960, cropland acres had decreased by more than 50 percent in nearly every county in the Southern Piedmont.

While crop production is still important today on the more productive lands, those of lower productivity, or those that were subject to severe erosion, were often abandoned some time ago. Typically, they have either reverted to forest, or have been converted to other uses. Although the productivity of soils was greatly reduced through erosion, less intensive land uses such as grazing and forestry were still feasible. These land uses gained popularity as patterns of urban migration, low commodity prices, and other factors gradually made crop production less economical on the marginal lands.

In recent years, large-scale adoption of soil conservation practices have led to better outcomes with respect to erosion in much of MLRA, increasing the economic viability and long-term sustainability of Piedmont farms. Despite some success, water erosion remains one of the most important soil resource concerns in the MLRA.

Other major resource concerns include increasing conversion of prime farmland and farmland of statewide importance to urban uses. Throughout the MLRA, metropolitan areas are expanding into lands that have historically been used for timber or agriculture. This change in land use is occurring rapidly in the corridor called the Piedmont Crescent, which extends from Atlanta, Georgia, to Raleigh, North Carolina.

HISTORIC VEGETATION COVER
Over most of the Southern Piedmont uplands, the historic oak-hickory, or oak-hickory-pine forest, once covered large portions of the landscape. It was dominated by upland oaks, such as white oak (Quercus alba), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and southern red oak (Quercus falcata), with a smaller contribution from hickories (Carya spp.) and pines. The principal pine species are shortleaf pine (Pinus echinata), loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), and to the north and west, Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana). In the southernmost and easternmost portions of the MLRA, the historic montane longleaf pine forest, dominated by longleaf pine (Pinus palustris), shortleaf pine (P. echinata), and dry-site oaks, was found on ridgetops and steep south or west-facing slopes.

According to historic accounts, forests and woodlands of the past were generally more open and park-like, having been exposed to a more frequent fire regime. Piedmont prairies, likely maintained by Native Americans, were also reportedly common across the landscape, as were fire-maintained canebrakes along the streams (Trimble 1974; Daniels 1987; Griffith et al. 2002; Van Lear et al. 2004; Dearman and James 2019; Schomberg et al. 2020; USDA-NRCS 2022).

LRU notes

MLRA 136 is one of the largest MLRAs in the United States. It has a broad north-south and east-west extent and covers a wide range of elevations. The MLRA is partitioned by the mesic-thermic line, which divides the MLRA into mesic and thermic soil temperature regimes (figure 2.). The mesic soil temperature regime was delineated based on estimates of the native range of loblolly pine, which was historically absent in this part of the MLRA. In addition, this region is said to represent the northern and western limits of cotton production, an important crop to the south and east.

ESDs developed for this MLRA were split geographically into mesic and thermic ecological site concepts. Climate variation across the MLRA extent warrants the development of Land Resource Unit (LRU) classifications, to further subdivide the MLRA and support more precise Ecological Site Descriptions.

Classification relationships

APPLICABLE USNVC ASSOCIATIONS
CEGL008465 Fagus grandifolia - Quercus rubra / Cornus florida / Polystichum acrosticoides - Hexastylis virginica.

APPLICABLE EPA ECOREGIONS
Level III: 45. Piedmont
Level IV: 45e. Northern Inner Piedmont (EPA 2013).

APPLICABLE USFS ECOLOGICAL UNITS
Domain: Humid Temperate
Division: Subtropical
Ecological province: 231. Southeastern Mixed Forest
Ecological sections: 231I.Central Appalachian Piedmont (Cleland et al. 2007).

Based on the USGS physiographic classification system (Fenneman and Johnson 1946), most of MLRA 136 is in the Piedmont Upland section of the Piedmont province, in the Appalachian Highlands division.

Ecological site concept

This ecological site includes moist acidic uplands in colluvial areas, at the base of slopes and on cove-like head slopes, in highly dissected and higher elevation parts of the Southern Piedmont. It is geographically restricted to the mesic soil temperature regime portion of the MLRA. Generally, these moist slopes sit at the base of prominent ridges, high hills, or isolated monadnocks, on footslopes and toeslopes. These environments are protected to varying degrees from the elements, including sun, wind, and historically fire, and usually receive water from upslope. Although true cove forests are restricted to the Southern Blue Ridge, cove-like landforms are not uncommon in the Piedmont, in the more rugged parts of the MLRA. These forests generally lack some of the characteristic montane species featured in true cove forests.

Soils on this ecological site are typically deep to very deep, well drained Ultisols. Parent materials are colluvium, or a mixture of colluvium and slope alluvium, derived from acidic igneous or metamorphic rocks.

The reference state supports a closed canopy forest dominated by moisture-loving tree species, including American beech (Fagus grandifolia), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera). Dominant land uses include pasture and hayland, planted pine, and wildlife habitat. Soils have historically been used for crop production wherever feasible.

ES CHARACTERISTICS SUMMARY
• Mesic soil temperature regime
• Occurs on Piedmont uplands, on footslopes and toeslopes, in highly dissected and higher elevation parts of the MLRA
• Base saturation: < 35 percent in the subsoil
• Seasonal high water table: usually absent within 72 inches of the soil surface
• Depth to bedrock: ≥ 40 inches, usually deeper
• The available water storage capacity of the profile (from the soil surface to 80 inches, or to paralithic or lithic bedrock, whichever is shallower) is greater than or equal to 4 inches, usually higher
• Parent materials: colluvium, or a mixture of colluvium and slope alluvium
• Soils: deep to very deep, well drained Ultisols

Associated sites

PX136X00X380	Mesic Temperature Regime, Acidic High Hills and Isolated Ridges, Depth Restriction, Dry Found in higher and more exposed landscape positions upslope. Soils are much shallower to bedrock (< 40 inches from the soil surface, usually shallower). Moisture-loving plant species, such as northern red oak (Quercus rubra) and American beech (Fagus grandifolia), decrease in abundance, while dry-site species increase.
PX136X00X160	Mesic Temperature Regime, High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation Found in lower landscape positions, in river valleys or along small streams, on high stream terraces. The potential for flooding is higher and the depth to the seasonal high water table is often shallower (18 inches or greater from the soil surface). Bottomland oaks, such as willow oak (Quercus phellos), tend to be more abundant in the reference state.

PX136X00X380

Mesic Temperature Regime, Acidic High Hills and Isolated Ridges, Depth Restriction, Dry

Found in higher and more exposed landscape positions upslope. Soils are much shallower to bedrock (< 40 inches from the soil surface, usually shallower). Moisture-loving plant species, such as northern red oak (Quercus rubra) and American beech (Fagus grandifolia), decrease in abundance, while dry-site species increase.

PX136X00X160

Mesic Temperature Regime, High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation

Found in lower landscape positions, in river valleys or along small streams, on high stream terraces. The potential for flooding is higher and the depth to the seasonal high water table is often shallower (18 inches or greater from the soil surface). Bottomland oaks, such as willow oak (Quercus phellos), tend to be more abundant in the reference state.

Similar sites

PX136X00X160	Mesic Temperature Regime, High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation Found in lower landscape positions, in river valleys or along small streams, on high stream terraces. The potential for flooding is higher and the depth to the seasonal high water table is often shallower (12 inches or greater from the soil surface). Bottomland oaks, such as willow oak (Quercus phellos), tend to be more abundant in the reference state.
F130BY005WV	Mesic Colluvium Cool Aspect A similar ecological site typical of acidic coves of the Southern Blue Ridge. Montane species are more important in the canopy, including sweet birch (Betula lenta) and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), among others.
PX136X00X840	Acidic Upland Colluvial Forest The soil temperature regime is thermic, occurring within the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).

PX136X00X160

Mesic Temperature Regime, High Terraces, Very Rare Inundation

Found in lower landscape positions, in river valleys or along small streams, on high stream terraces. The potential for flooding is higher and the depth to the seasonal high water table is often shallower (12 inches or greater from the soil surface). Bottomland oaks, such as willow oak (Quercus phellos), tend to be more abundant in the reference state.

F130BY005WV

Mesic Colluvium Cool Aspect

A similar ecological site typical of acidic coves of the Southern Blue Ridge. Montane species are more important in the canopy, including sweet birch (Betula lenta) and eastern hemlock (Tsuga canadensis), among others.

PX136X00X840

Acidic Upland Colluvial Forest

The soil temperature regime is thermic, occurring within the native range of loblolly pine (Pinus taeda).

Figure 1. EPA level IV ecoregions of the Southern Piedmont (45).

Figure 2. Spatial illustration of soil temperature regimes of the Southern Piedmont.

Figure 3. Spatial extent of this ecological site representing the major areas where this site is important on the landscape.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Tree	(1) Fagus grandifolia (2) Quercus rubra
Shrub	(1) Euonymus americanus (2) Viburnum prunifolium
Herbaceous	(1) Polystichum acrostichoides (2) Hexastylis virginica

Legacy ID

F136XY340VA

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Physiographic features

This ecological site includes moist acidic uplands in colluvial areas, at the base of slopes and on cove-like head slopes, in highly dissected parts of the Southern Piedmont, in EPA ecoregion 45e (Northern Inner Piedmont). This ecoregion roughly coincides with the mesic soil temperature regime portion of the Southern Piedmont, the northwestern-most part of the MLRA. These sheltered slopes typically sit at the base of prominent ridges, high hills, or isolated monadnocks, on footslopes and toeslopes. Representative locations are gently sloping to moderately steep, with a representative slope of 6 to 20 percent and a maximum slope of 30 percent.

The geologic substrate is typically low in ferromagnesian minerals and high in silica. Typical parent materials include colluvium, or a mixture of colluvium and slope alluvium, derived from felsic crystalline and fine-grained metasedimentary rock, such as granite, gneiss, and schist.

Figure 4. Cross section of a colluvial footslope, illustrating how colluvium and alluvium often mix at the bottom of the slope. Adapted from Turner et al. (1996).

Table 2. Representative physiographic features

Hillslope profile	(1) Footslope (2) Toeslope
Geomorphic position, hills	(1) Base Slope (2) Head Slope
Landforms	(1) Piedmont > Hillslope
Runoff class	Low to medium
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	730 – 1,440 ft
Slope	6 – 20%
Water table depth	72 – 999 in
Aspect	W, NW, N, NE, E, SE, S, SW

Table 3. Representative physiographic features (actual ranges)

Runoff class	Low to high
Flooding frequency	None
Ponding frequency	None
Elevation	680 – 2,250 ft
Slope	2 – 30%
Water table depth	40 – 999 in

Climatic features

On this ecological site, the average mean annual precipitation is 47 inches. On average, the rainiest months occur from May through September, as well as in March. The driest months occur from October through February.

Table 4. Representative climatic features

Frost-free period (characteristic range)	151-166 days
Freeze-free period (characteristic range)	185-196 days
Precipitation total (characteristic range)	45-49 in
Frost-free period (actual range)	149-172 days
Freeze-free period (actual range)	178-207 days
Precipitation total (actual range)	42-50 in
Frost-free period (average)	159 days
Freeze-free period (average)	191 days
Precipitation total (average)	47 in

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 5. Monthly precipitation range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 6. Monthly minimum temperature range

Characteristic range

Actual range

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Figure 7. Monthly maximum temperature range

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Figure 8. Monthly average minimum and maximum temperature

Figure 9. Annual precipitation pattern

Figure 10. Annual average temperature pattern

Climate stations used

(1) MORGANTON [USC00315838], Morganton, NC
(2) HICKORY FAA AP [USW00003810], Hickory, NC
(3) LENOIR [USC00314938], Lenoir, NC
(4) TAYLORSVILLE [USC00318519], Taylorsville, NC
(5) W KERR SCOTT RSVR [USC00319555], Wilkesboro, NC
(6) NORTH WILKESBORO [USC00316256], Wilkesboro, NC
(7) MT AIRY 2 W [USC00315890], Mount Airy, NC
(8) BROOKNEAL [USC00441082], Brookneal, VA
(9) STUART [USC00448170], Stuart, VA
(10) PHILPOTT DAM 2 [USC00446692], Henry, VA
(11) MARTINSVILLE FLTR PLT [USC00445300], Martinsville, VA
(12) ROCKY MT [USC00447338], Rocky Mount, VA
(13) BEDFORD [USC00440551], Bedford, VA
(14) LYNCHBURG #2 [USC00445117], Lynchburg, VA
(15) LYNCHBURG RGNL AP [USW00013733], Lynchburg, VA
(16) TYE RIVER 1 SE [USC00448600], Amherst, VA
(17) APPOMATTOX [USC00440243], Appomattox, VA

Soil features

Soils on this ecological site are typically very deep, well drained Ultisols. Parent materials are colluvium, or a mixture of colluvium and slope alluvium, derived from felsic crystalline or fine-grained metasedimentary rock, such as granite, gneiss, or schist.

Reaction in the subsoil is typically strongly acid to very strongly acid (pH 4.5 to 5.5). In the surface layers, reaction varies with land use and management. Under low input or forested conditions, it generally falls somewhere between pH 5.1 and 6.0. Occasionally, it can naturally be closer to neutral under unusually rich site conditions

Soils on this ecological site have a mesic soil temperature regime, which is characterized by a mean annual soil temperature is 8°C to 15°C and a winter to summer temperature differential of 6°C or more in the subsoil.

Modal soil taxa include: Typic Hapludults, Typic Paleudults
Modal soil series include: Braddock, Wintergreen
Other soils attributed to this ecological site include Appomattox, Thurmont, and Pilot Mountain

Note: because colluvial areas at the base slopes have often not been delineated in soil mapping, this ecological site is likely more extensive than suggested by order 2 soil mapping.

Figure 11. An illustration of a soil profile belonging to the Wintergreen series, a representative soil series associated with this ecological site.

Figure 12. A soil profile of the Braddock series, a representative soil series associated with this ecological site.

Table 5. Representative soil features

Parent material	(1) Colluvium – igneous and metamorphic rock (2) Slope alluvium – igneous and metamorphic rock
Surface texture	(1) Fine sandy loam (2) Extremely cobbly, cobbly fine sandy loam (3) Sandy loam (4) Loam (5) Clay loam
Family particle size	(1) Fine (2) Fine-loamy
Drainage class	Well drained
Permeability class	Moderately rapid
Depth to restrictive layer	80 – 999 in
Soil depth	80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-80in)	7 – 12 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	5.1 – 6
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	1 – 12%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	8%

Table 6. Representative soil features (actual values)

Drainage class	Well drained
Permeability class	Moderately rapid
Depth to restrictive layer	65 – 999 in
Soil depth	65 – 80 in
Surface fragment cover <=3"	Not specified
Surface fragment cover >3"	Not specified
Available water capacity (0-80in)	5 – 15 in
Soil reaction (1:1 water) (0-10in)	3.5 – 6
Subsurface fragment volume <=3" (0-80in)	30%
Subsurface fragment volume >3" (0-80in)	25%

Ecological dynamics

U.S. National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) associations that are consistent with reference conditions on this ecological site include CEGL008465 Fagus grandifolia - Quercus rubra / Cornus florida / Polystichum acrosticoides - Hexastylis virginica. This concept is closely related to the reference state (USNVC 2022).

The vegetation may be similar to, and may have overlap with, CEGL007543 Liriodendron tulipifera - Betula lenta - Tsuga canadensis / Rhododendron maximum (Southern Appalachian Acidic Cove Forest). In the Piedmont however, montane species (Betula lenta, Tsuga canadensis, Rhododendron maximum, Leucothoe fontanesiana, etc.) are generally of minor importance. Southern Appalachian Acidic Cove Forests are covered by F130BY005WV (Mesic Colluvium Cool Aspect), a similar ecological site in the Blue Ridge (USNVC 2022).

MATURE FORESTS
The reference state supports a closed canopy forest dominated by deciduous mesophytic tree species. Dominant canopy species include American beech (Fagus grandifolia), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera). Other characteristic species include white oak (Quercus alba) and hickory (Carya glabra, C. ovalis).

Characteristic subcanopy species include flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), American holly (Ilex opaca), umbrella-tree (Magnolia tripetala), hickory (Carya spp.), red maple (Acer rubrum), black cherry (Prunus serotina), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), cucumber tree (Magnolia acuminata), common serviceberry (Amelanchier arborea), and hophornbeam (Ostrya virginiana).

In the shrub layer, representative species include bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), painted buckeye (Aesculus sylvatica), and American witchhazel (Hamamelis virginia). The herb layer is dominated by ferns and other shade-tolerant, moisture-loving forbs, including Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), heartleaf (Hexastylis spp.), broad beechfern (Phegopteris hexagonoptera), white avens (Geum canadense), and New York fern (Thelypteris noveboracensis).

Most sites have been logged extensively in the past. In contemporary stands, past selective timber harvesting has likely had a significant effect on species composition, presumably resulting in a decrease in oaks and an increase in low-value hardwoods such as American beech (F. grandifolia).

DYNAMICS OF NATURAL SUCCESSION AND FIRE ECOLOGY
In these moist, sheltered forests, tree replacement primarily takes place in canopy gaps caused by disease, pests, and the like, as opposed to fire. Unlike upslope forest patches that are less protected, windthrow is not a particularly important source of canopy gaps. Because of its sheltered, water-receiving landscape position at the foot of slopes, moisture-loving, fire-intolerant upland tree species likely found refuge here, and on similar ecological sites, under the more frequent fire regime of the past. Fires of any consequence likely occurred infrequently, playing only a minor role in the historical ecology (Oosting 1942; Peet and Christensen 1980; Schafale and Weakley 1990; Spira 2011; Schafale 2012a, 2012b; Fleming et al. 2021).

SPECIES LIST
Canopy layer: Fagus grandifolia, Quercus rubra, Liriodendron tulipifera, Quercus alba, Carya glabra, Carya ovalis, Quercus montana, Carya tomentosa, Carya ovalis, Pinus strobus, Pinus virginiana,

Subcanopy layer: Cornus florida, Ilex opaca, Magnolia tripetala, Carya spp., Acer rubrum, Prunus serotina, Nyssa sylvatica, Magnolia acuminata, Amelanchier arborea, Ostrya virginiana, Carpinus caroliniana, Ulmus rubra, Morus rubra var. rubra, Magnolia fraseri, Halesia tetraptera, Leucothoe fontanesiana, Tsuga canadensis,

Vines/lianas: Parthenocissus quinquefolia, Vitis rotundifolia, Toxicodendron radicans, Smilax rotundifolia, Smilax tamnoides, Smilax herbacea, Smilax glauca, Passiflora lutea, Vitis labrusca, Vitis vulpina,

Shrub layer: Euonymus americanus, Viburnum prunifolium, Aesculus sylvatica, Hamamelis virginia, Viburnum acerifolium, Corylus americana, Pyrularia pubera, Calycanthus floridus, Hydrangea arborescens, Kalmia latifolia, Rhododendron spp., Styrax grandifolius, Fothergilla major, Stewartia ovata

Herb layer - forbs: Polystichum acrostichoides, Hexastylis virginica, Hexastylis arifolia, Phegopteris hexagonoptera, Geum canadense, Thelypteris noveboracensis, Sanguinaria canadensis, Polygonatum biflorum, Maianthemum racemosum ssp. racemosum, Podophyllum peltatum, Athyrium filix-femina ssp. asplenioides, Erythronium umbilicatum, Ruellia caroliniensis, Asplenium platyneuron, Dioscorea quaternata, Uvularia perfoliata, Geranium maculatum, Sanicula canadensis, Aristolochia serpentaria, Mitchella repens, Tipularia discolor, Viola palmata, Thalictrum thalictroides, Dryopteris marginalis, Viola hastata, Botrychium biternatum, Botrychium virginianum, Botrychium dissectum, Claytonia virginica, Arisaema triphyllum, Goodyera pubescens, Solidago caesia, Solidago arguta, Elephantopus carolinianus, Hypoxis hirsuta, Galium circaezans, Verbesina occidentalis, Stellaria pubera, Silene stellata, Amianthium muscitoxicum, Trillium catesbaei, Chamaelirium luteum, Iris cristata, Galax urceolata, Prenanthes altissima, Hexastylis heterophylla, Hepatica americana, Ageratina altissima, Heuchera americana, Uvularia sessilifolia, Medeola virginiana, Amsonia tabernaemontana, Cynoglossum virginianum, Heuchera caroliniana, Epifagus virginiana, Monotropa uniflora, Monotropa hypopithys, Eupatorium sessilifolium, Chrysogonum virginianum var. virginianum, Oxalis violacea, Chrysogonum virginianum var. virginianum, Huperzia lucidula, Conopholis americana, Uvularia grandiflora, Asplenium montanum, Lilium superbum, Stellaria media (I)

Herb layer - graminoids: Dichanthelium spp., Poa autumnalis, Dichanthelium boscii, Luzula acuminata, Carex blanda, Microstegium vimineum (I)

(I) = introduced

State and transition model

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States 1, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)

1. Reference State: Mixed Mesophytic Colluvial Forest

5. Pasture/Hayland State

6. Cropland State

States 2, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)

2. Secondary Succession State

5. Pasture/Hayland State

6. Cropland State

T1A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T1B	-	Selective removals of the most valuable timber specimens, leaving inferior trees behind.
T1C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T1D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T2A	-	Long-term natural succession.
T2B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T2C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T2D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T3A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T3C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T3D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T4A	-	Abandonment of forestry practices.
T4B	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T4C	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T5A	-	Long-term cessation of grazing.
T5B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T5C	-	Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T6A	-	Agricultural abandonment.
T6B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T6C	-	Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Forested Successional Phase

2.2. Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

2.3. Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

2.1A	-	Clearcut logging.
2.2A	-	Natural succession.
2.2B	-	Brush management.
2.3A	-	Natural succession.

State 6 submodel, plant communities

6.1. Conservation-management Cropland Phase

6.2. Conventional-management Cropland Phase

6.1A	-	Conventional tillage is reintroduced.
6.2A	-	Implementation of conservation tillage and other soil conservation practices

State 1
Reference State: Mixed Mesophytic Colluvial Forest

This closed canopy mature forest state dominated by deciduous mesophytic tree species, such as (Fagus grandifolia), northern red oak (Quercus rubra), and tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera).

Characteristics and indicators. Stands are uneven-aged with at least some old trees present. Pines make up a minority of the canopy cover.

Resilience management. Deer population management is critical to sustaining the diversity of herbaceous understory species.

Dominant plant species

American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tree
northern red oak (Quercus rubra), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
white oak (Quercus alba), tree
pignut hickory (Carya glabra), tree
flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), tree
American holly (Ilex opaca), tree
umbrella-tree (Magnolia tripetala), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
black cherry (Prunus serotina), tree
eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), tree
bursting-heart (Euonymus americanus), shrub
blackhaw (Viburnum prunifolium), shrub
painted buckeye (Aesculus sylvatica), shrub
American holly (Ilex opaca), shrub
American witchhazel (Hamamelis virginiana), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia), shrub
mapleleaf viburnum (Viburnum acerifolium), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
American hazelnut (Corylus americana), shrub
rosette grass (Dichanthelium), grass
autumn bluegrass (Poa autumnalis), grass
hairy woodrush (Luzula acuminata), grass
eastern woodland sedge (Carex blanda), grass
Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), other herbaceous
Virginia heartleaf (Hexastylis virginica), other herbaceous
broad beechfern (Phegopteris hexagonoptera), other herbaceous
white avens (Geum canadense), other herbaceous
New York fern (Thelypteris noveboracensis), other herbaceous
bloodroot (Sanguinaria canadensis), other herbaceous
smooth Solomon's seal (Polygonatum biflorum), other herbaceous
feathery false lily of the valley (Maianthemum racemosum ssp. racemosum), other herbaceous
mayapple (Podophyllum peltatum), other herbaceous
dimpled troutlily (Erythronium umbilicatum), other herbaceous
asplenium ladyfern (Athyrium filix-femina ssp. asplenioides), other herbaceous

State 2
Secondary Succession State

This state develops in the immediate aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Which species colonize a particular location in the wake of a disturbance does involve a considerable degree of chance. It also depends a great deal on the type, duration, and magnitude of the disturbance event.

Characteristics and indicators. Plant age distribution is even. Plants exhibit pioneering traits such as rapid growth, early reproduction, and shade-intolerance.

Community 2.1
Forested Successional Phase

This successional phase develops in the wake of recent, large-scale disturbances which have resulted in canopy removal. Stands are even-aged and species diversity is low. The canopy is usually dominated by a mixture of pines and opportunistic hardwoods. Species that exhibit pioneering traits are usually most abundant.

Forest overstory. The overstory is dominated by pines and opportunistic hardwoods, including tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), red maple (Acer rubrum), and Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), among others.

Forest understory. Representative understory tree species include American holly (Ilex opaca), blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), red maple (Acer rubrum), and white ash (Fraxinus americana). Seedlings of oaks, beeches, and hickories are usually present in the understory. These seedlings are released gradually as the forest matures and faster growing tree species die off.

In the shrub layer, representative species include American holly (Ilex opaca) and the exotic Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), along with several vines.

Dominant plant species

tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), tree
eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), tree
American holly (Ilex opaca), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
hybrid hickory (Carya), tree
American holly (Ilex opaca), shrub
Virginia creeper (Parthenocissus quinquefolia), shrub
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), shrub
muscadine (Vitis rotundifolia), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
Christmas fern (Polystichum acrostichoides), other herbaceous
ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), other herbaceous
littlebrownjug (Hexastylis arifolia), other herbaceous
sparselobe grapefern (Botrychium biternatum), other herbaceous
partridgeberry (Mitchella repens), other herbaceous
white snakeroot (Ageratina altissima), other herbaceous

Community 2.2
Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

This successional phase is dominated by shrubs, along with seedlings of opportunistic hardwoods and pines. It typically develops beginning in the third year after agricultural abandonment or clearcut logging. It grades into the forested successional phase as tree seedlings become saplings and begin to occupy more of the canopy cover.

Forest overstory. The composition varies considerably from location to location. Non-native species usually occupy some portion of the vine or shrub cover in most examples.

Dominant plant species

tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
white ash (Fraxinus americana), tree
princesstree (Paulownia tomentosa), tree
black cherry (Prunus serotina), tree
black locust (Robinia pseudoacacia), tree
Callery pear (Pyrus calleryana), tree
tree of heaven (Ailanthus altissima), tree
winged elm (Ulmus alata), tree
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), tree
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
rose (Rosa), shrub
Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
grape (Vitis), shrub
sweet autumn virginsbower (Clematis terniflora), shrub
winged sumac (Rhus copallinum), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), other herbaceous
aster (Symphyotrichum), other herbaceous
yellow crownbeard (Verbesina occidentalis), other herbaceous

Community 2.3
Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

This transient community is composed of the first herbaceous invaders in the aftermath of agricultural abandonment, clearcut logging, or other large-scale natural disturbances that lead to canopy removal. Species composition is highly variable at this stage of succession. In addition to the named species, other herbaceous pioneers common to this ecological site include wild lettuce (Lactuca spp.), annual ragweed (Ambrosia artemisiifolia), Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), vetch (Vicia spp.), dock (Rumex spp.), evening primrose (Oenothera spp.), Queen Anne's lace (Daucus carota), several species of thoroughwort (Eupatorium spp.), and many others.

Resilience management. If the user wishes to maintain this community/phase for wildlife or pollinator habitat, a prescribed burn, mowing, or prescribed grazing will be needed at least once annually to prevent community pathway 2.3A. To that end, as part of long-term maintenance, periodic overseeding of wildlife or pollinator seed mixtures can be helpful in ensuring the viability of certain desired species and maintaining the desired composition of species for user goals.

Dominant plant species

Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
Nepalese browntop (Microstegium vimineum), grass
American burnweed (Erechtites hieraciifolius), other herbaceous
American pokeweed (Phytolacca americana), other herbaceous
Canada goldenrod (Solidago altissima), other herbaceous
beggarticks (Bidens), other herbaceous
Canadian horseweed (Conyza canadensis), other herbaceous
aster (Symphyotrichum), other herbaceous
yellow crownbeard (Verbesina occidentalis), other herbaceous
fleabane (Erigeron), other herbaceous
white snakeroot (Ageratina altissima), other herbaceous
great ragweed (Ambrosia trifida), other herbaceous

Pathway 2.1A
Community 2.1 to 2.3

The forested successional phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Pathway 2.2A
Community 2.2 to 2.1

The shrub-dominated successional phase naturally moves towards the forested successional phase through natural succession.

Pathway 2.2B
Community 2.2 to 2.3

The shrub-dominated successional phase can return to the herbaceous early successional phase through brush management, including herbicide application, mechanical removal, prescribed grazing, or fire.

Context dependence. Note: if the user wishes to use this community pathway to create wildlife or pollinator habitat, please contact a local NRCS office for a species list specific to the area of interest and user needs. If the user wishes to maintain the shrub-dominated successional phase long term, for wildlife habitat or other uses, periodic use of this community pathway is necessary to prevent community pathway 2.2A, which happens inevitably unless natural succession is set back through disturbance.

Pathway 2.3A
Community 2.3 to 2.2

The herbaceous early successional phase naturally moves towards the shrub-dominated successional phase through natural succession. The process takes approximately 3 years on average, barring any major disturbances capable of inhibiting natural succession.

State 3
High-graded Hardwood Forest State

This state develops as a consequence of high-grading, where the most valuable trees are removed, leaving less desirable timber specimens behind. Trees left behind include undesirable timber species, trees of poor form, diseased trees, or genetically inferior trees.

Characteristics and indicators. Typically, high-graded stands consist of a combination of residual stems from the previous stand, a high proportion of undesirable shade-tolerant species, along with some regrowth from desirable timber species. In some cases, large-diameter trees of desirable timber species may be present, but upon closer inspection, these trees usually have serious defects that resulted in their being left behind in earlier cuts.

Resilience management. Landowners with high-graded stands have two options for improving timber production: 1) rehabilitate, or 2) regenerate. To rehabilitate a stand, the landowner must evaluate existing trees to determine if rehabilitation is justified. If the proportion of high-quality specimens present in the stand is low, then the stand should be regenerated. In many cases, poor quality of the existing stand is the result of decades of mismanagement. Drastic measures are often required to get the stand back into good timber production.

Dominant plant species

American beech (Fagus grandifolia), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
American holly (Ilex opaca), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
flowering dogwood (Cornus florida), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
hybrid hickory (Carya), tree
pine (Pinus), tree

State 4
Managed Pine Plantation State

This converted state is dominated by planted timber trees. Commonly planted species include loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), and eastern white pine (Pinus strobus). Even-aged management is the most common timber management system. Note: if the user wishes to convert stands dominated by hardwoods to planted pine, clearcutting will usually be necessary first, allowing herbaceous pioneers to establish on the site in the weeks or months prior to planting. Users should utilize measures described in transition T2B under these circumstances.

Resilience management. Hardwood Encroachment: Hardwood encroachment can be problematic in managed pine plantations. Good site preparation, proper stocking, and periodic thinning are advisable to reduce hardwood competition. Overstocking: The overstocked condition commonly occurs in naturally regenerated stands. When competition from other pines begins to impact the health and productivity of the stand, precommercial thinning should be considered. At this point, the benefit of thinning usually outweighs the potential for invasion and competition from non-pine species. As the target window for thinning passes, the condition of the stand can slowly deteriorate if no action is taken. Under long-term overstocked conditions, trees are more prone to stresses, including pine bark beetle infestation and damage from wind or ice. High-grading: In subsequent commercial thinnings, care should be taken in tree selection. High quality specimens should be left to reach maturity, while slower growing trees or those with defects should be removed sooner. If high quality specimens are harvested first, trees left behind are often structurally unsound, diseased, genetically inferior, or of poor form. This can have long-term implications for tree genetics and for the condition of the stand (Felix III 1983; Miller et al. 1995, 2003; Megalos 2019).

Dominant plant species

loblolly pine (Pinus taeda), tree
eastern white pine (Pinus strobus), tree
Virginia pine (Pinus virginiana), tree
red maple (Acer rubrum), tree
tuliptree (Liriodendron tulipifera), tree
blackgum (Nyssa sylvatica), tree
sassafras (Sassafras albidum), tree
sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua), tree
oak (Quercus), tree
hybrid hickory (Carya), tree
American holly (Ilex opaca), shrub
blackberry (Rubus), shrub
eastern poison ivy (Toxicodendron radicans), shrub
grape (Vitis), shrub
Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), shrub
greenbrier (Smilax), shrub
blueberry (Vaccinium), shrub
St. Johnswort (Hypericum), shrub
rosette grass (Dichanthelium), grass
ebony spleenwort (Asplenium platyneuron), other herbaceous
fan clubmoss (Lycopodium digitatum), other herbaceous
moccasin flower (Cypripedium acaule), other herbaceous
striped prince's pine (Chimaphila maculata), other herbaceous

State 5
Pasture/Hayland State

This converted state is dominated by herbaceous forage species.

Resilience management. Overgrazing and High Foot Traffic: In areas that are subject to high foot traffic from livestock and equipment, and/or long-term overgrazing, unpalatable weedy species tend to invade, as most desirable forage species are less competitive under these conditions. High risk areas include locations where livestock congregate for water, shade, or feed, and in travel lanes, gates, and other areas of heavy use. Plant species that are indicative of overgrazing or excessive foot traffic on this ecological site include buttercup (Ranunculus spp.), plantain (Plantago spp.), curly dock (Rumex crispus), sneezeweed (Helenium amarum), cudweed (Pseudognaphalium spp.), slender yellow woodsorrel (Oxalis dillenii), Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), Virginia pepperweed (Lepidium virginicum), black medick (Medicago lupulina), Japanese clover (Kummerowia striata), annual bluegrass (Poa annua), poverty rush (Juncus tenuis), and Indian goosegrass (Eleusine indica), among others. A handful of desirable forage species are also tolerant of heavy grazing and high foot traffic, including white clover (Trifolium repens), dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum), and bermudagrass (Cynodon dactylon). An overabundance of these species, along with poor plant vigor and areas of bare soil, may imply that excessive foot traffic and/or overgrazing is a concern, either in the present or in the recent past. Soil Fertility and pH Management: Like overgrazing and excessive foot traffic, inadequate soil fertility and pH management can lead to invasion from several common weeds of pastures and hayfields. Species indicative of poor soil fertility and/or suboptimal pH on this ecological site include broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), dogfennel (Eupatorium capillifolium), Japanese clover (Kummerowia striata), common sheep sorrel (Rumex acetosella), and Carolina horsenettle (Solanum carolinense), among others. Most of these weedy invaders do not compete well in dense, rapidly growing pastures and hayfields. By maintaining soil fertility and pH, managing grazing to favor desirable forage species, and clipping behind grazing rotations when needed, forage grasses and forbs can usually outcompete weedy invaders. Brush Encroachment: Brush encroachment can be problematic in some pastures, particularly near fence lines where there is often a ready seed source. Pastures subject to low stocking density and long-duration grazing rotations can also be susceptible to encroachment from woody plants. Shorter grazing rotations of higher stocking density can help alleviate pressure from shrubs and vines with low palatability or thorny stems. Clipping behind grazing rotations, annual brush hogging, and multispecies grazing systems (cattle with or followed by goats) can also be helpful. Common woody invaders of pasture on this ecological site include rose (Rosa spp.), blackberry (Rubus spp.), saw greenbrier (Smilax bona-nox), Japanese honeysuckle (Lonicera japonica), common persimmon (Diospyros virginiana), eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana), black cherry (Prunus serotina), and Chinese privet (Ligustrum sinense).

Dominant plant species

tall fescue (Schedonorus arundinaceus), grass
orchardgrass (Dactylis glomerata), grass
dallisgrass (Paspalum dilatatum), grass
Kentucky bluegrass (Poa pratensis), grass
perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne), grass
purpletop tridens (Tridens flavus), grass
Johnsongrass (Sorghum halepense), grass
hairy crabgrass (Digitaria sanguinalis), grass
broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), grass
sweet vernalgrass (Anthoxanthum odoratum), grass
white clover (Trifolium repens), other herbaceous
red clover (Trifolium pratense), other herbaceous
vetch (Vicia), other herbaceous
narrowleaf plantain (Plantago lanceolata), other herbaceous
field clover (Trifolium campestre), other herbaceous
black medick (Medicago lupulina), other herbaceous
common dandelion (Taraxacum officinale), other herbaceous
chicory (Cichorium intybus), other herbaceous
wild garlic (Allium vineale), other herbaceous

State 6
Cropland State

This converted state produces food or fiber for human uses. It is dominated by domesticated crop species, along with typical weedy invaders of cropland.

Community 6.1
Conservation-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the practice of no-tillage or strip-tillage, and other soil conservation practices. Though no-till systems offer many benefits, several weedy species tend to be more problematic under this type of management system. In contrast with conventional tillage systems, problematic species in no-till systems include biennial or perennial weeds, owing to the fact that tillage is no longer used in weed management.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous
cultivated tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), other herbaceous

Community 6.2
Conventional-management Cropland Phase

This cropland phase is characterized by the recurrent use of tillage as a management tool. Due to the frequent disturbance regime, weedy invaders tend to be annual herbaceous species that reproduce quickly and are prolific seed producers.

Resilience management. The potential for soil loss is high under this management system. Measures should be put in place to limit erosion.

Dominant plant species

corn (Zea mays), grass
common wheat (Triticum aestivum), grass
soybean (Glycine max), other herbaceous
cultivated tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), other herbaceous

Pathway 6.1A
Community 6.1 to 6.2

The conservation-management cropland phase can shift to the conventional-management cropland phase through cessation of conservation tillage practices and the reintroduction of conventional tillage practices.

Context dependence. Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after reintroduction of conventional tillage practices. These changes continue to manifest as conventional tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Pathway 6.2A
Community 6.2 to 6.1

The conventional-management cropland phase can be brought into the conservation-management cropland phase through the implementation of one of several conservation tillage options, including no-tillage or strip-tillage, along with implementation of other soil conservation practices.

Context dependence. Soil and vegetation changes associated with this community pathway typically occur several years after implementation of conservation tillage. These changes continue to manifest as conservation tillage is continued, before reaching a steady state.

Transition T1A
State 1 to 2

The reference state can transition to the secondary succession state through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Transition T1B
State 1 to 3

The reference state can transition to the high-graded hardwood forest state through selective removal of the most valuable trees, leaving undesirable timber specimens behind. This may occur through multiple cutting cycles over the course of decades or longer, each cut progressively worsening the condition of the stand.

Transition T1C
State 1 to 5

The reference state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. Herbicide applications, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T1D
State 1 to 6

The reference state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody plants are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T2A
State 2 to 1

The secondary succession state can transition to the reference state through long-term natural succession. This process can be accelerated to some degree by a combination of prescribed burns and selective harvesting of pines and opportunistic hardwoods.

Transition T2B
State 2 to 4

The secondary succession state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and planting of timber trees. Thinning alone may be sufficient for portions of the forest if pines have already established, though it is rarely sufficient for an entire forest patch.

Transition T2C
State 2 to 5

The secondary succession state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning wooded or semi-wooded land to pasture. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Applications of fertilizer and lime can also be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T2D
State 2 to 6

The secondary succession state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, 4) weed control, 5) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking may be needed to successfully transition land that has been fallow for some time back to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T3A
State 3 to 2

The high-graded hardwood forest state can transition to the secondary succession state through clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.

Transition T3C
State 3 to 5

The high-graded hardwood forest state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, and 3) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Transition T3D
State 3 to 6

The high-graded hardwood forest state can transition to the cropland state through 1) mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, 2) seedbed preparation, 3) applications of fertilizer/lime, 4) herbicide application, 5) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Context dependence. A broad spectrum herbicide, fire, and/or root-raking can be helpful in transitioning treed land to cropland. This is done in part to limit coppicing, as many woody pioneers are capable of sprouting from residual plant structures left behind after clearing. Judicious use of root-raking is recommended, as this practice can have long-term repercussions with regard to soil structure. Weedy grasses and forbs can also be problematic on these lands.

Transition T4A
State 4 to 2

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the secondary succession state through abandonment of forestry practices (with or without timber tree harvest).

Transition T4B
State 4 to 5

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) timber harvest, 2) mechanical stump and debris removal, 3) seedbed preparation, 4) planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. Applications of fertilizer and lime can be helpful in establishing perennial forage species. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Transition T4C
State 4 to 6

The managed pine plantation state can transition to the cropland state through 1) timber harvest, 2) mechanical stump and debris removal, 3) seedbed preparation, 4) applications of fertilizer/lime, 5) herbicide application, 6) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Transition T5A
State 5 to 2

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the secondary succession state through long-term cessation of grazing.

Transition T5B
State 5 to 4

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and tree planting.

Transition T5C
State 5 to 6

The pasture/hayland state can transition to the cropland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) applications of fertilizer/lime, 3) herbicide application, and 4) planting of crop or cover crop seed.

Transition T6A
State 6 to 2

The cropland state can transition to the secondary succession state through agricultural abandonment.

Transition T6B
State 6 to 4

The cropland state can transition to the managed pine plantation state through site preparation and tree planting.

Transition T6C
State 6 to 5

The cropland state can transition to the pasture/hayland state through 1) seedbed preparation, 2) weed control, and 3) planting of perennial forage grasses and forbs.

Context dependence. To convert cropland to pasture or hayland, weed control and good seed-soil contact are important. It is also critical to review the labels of herbicides used for weed control and on the previous crop. Many herbicides have plant-back restrictions, which if not followed could carryover and kill forage seedlings as they germinate. Grazing should be deferred until grasses and forbs are well established.

Additional community tables

Supporting information

Inventory data references

Data collection and analysis of field data will be performed during the Verification Stage of ESD development.

Other references

Cleland, D.T., J.A. Freeouf, J.E. Keys, G.J. Nowacki, C.A. Carpenter, W.H. McNab. 2007. Ecological Subregions: Sections and Subsections for the conterminous United States. General Technical Report WO-76D. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. Washington, D.C.

Daniels, R.B. 1987. Soil Erosion and Degradation in the Southern Piedmont of the USA. In: M.G. Wolman, F.G.A. Fournier (eds.) Land Transformation in Agriculture. John Wiley and Sons. New York, NY.

Dearman, T.L., L.A. James. 2019. Patterns of legacy sediment deposits in a small South Carolina Piedmont catchment, USA. Geomorphology. 343(15):1-14.

Environmental Protection Agency (EPA). 2013. Level III and IV ecoregions of the continental
United States. National Health and Environmental Effects Research Laboratory. Corvallis, Oregon. Map scale 1:3,000,000.

Fenneman, N.M., Johnson D.W. 1946. Physiographic Divisions of the Conterminous U.S. U.S. Geological Survey. Washington, DC.

Fleming, G. P., K. D. Patterson, and K. Taverna. 2021. The natural communities of Virginia: A classification of ecological community groups and community types. Third approximation. Version 3.3. Virginia Department of Conservation and Recreation, Division of Natural Heritage, Richmond, VA. [http://www.dcr.virginia.gov/natural-heritage/natural-communities/]

Griffith, G.E., J.M. Omernik, J.A. Comstock, M.P. Schafale, W.H. McNab, D.R. Lenat, T.F. MacPherson, J.B. Glover, V.B. Shelburne. 2002. Ecoregions of North Carolina and South Carolina. United States Geological Survey. Reston, Virginia.

Keever, C. 1950. Causes of succession on old fields of the Piedmont, North Carolina. Ecological Monographs. 20(3):229-250.

Megalos, M. 2019. Thinning Pine Stands. Woodland Owners Notes. NC State Extension. https://content.ces.ncsu.edu/thinning-pine-stands (accessed 18 March 2023).

Miller, J.H., B.R. Zutter, S.M. Zedaker, M.B. Edwards, R.A. Newbold. 1995. Early plant succession in loblolly pine plantations as affected by vegetation management. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 19(3):109-126.

Miller, J.H., B.R. Zutter, R.A. Newbold, M.B. Edwards, S.M. Zedaker. 2003. Stand dynamics and plant associates of loblolly pine plantations to midrotation after early intensive vegetation management – a southeastern United States regional study. Southern Journal of Applied Forestry. 27(4):221-236.

Peet, R. K., and N.L. Christensen. 1980. Hardwood forest vegetation of the North Carolina Piedmont. Veroffentlichungen des Geobotanischen Institutes der ETH, Stiftung Rubel 68:14-39.

Peet, R. K., and N.L. Christensen. 1987. Tree Death: Cause and Consequence. Bioscience. 37(8):586-595.

Schafale, M.P. 2012a. Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina, 4th Approximation. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Parks and Recreation. Natural Heritage Program. Raleigh, NC.

Schafale, M.P. 2012b. Guide to the Natural Communities of North Carolina. 4th Approximation. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Parks and Recreation. Natural Heritage Program. Raleigh, NC.

Schafale, M.P., A.S. Weakley. 1990. Classification of the natural communities of North Carolina. Third approximation. North Carolina Department of Environment, Health, and Natural Resources, Division of Parks and Recreation, Natural Heritage Program. Raleigh, NC.

Schomberg, H., G. Hoyt, B. Brock, G. Naderman. A. Meijer. 2020. Southern Piedmont Case Studies. In: J. Bergtold, M. Sailus (eds.) Conservation Tillage Systems in the Southeast. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education (SARE) program.

Spira, T.P. 2011. Wildflowers & Plant Communities of the Southern Appalachian Mountains and Piedmont. A naturalist’s guide to the Carolinas, Virginia, Tennessee, and Georgia. The University of North Carolina Press. Chapel Hill, NC.

Trimble, S.W. 1974. Man-Induced Soil Erosion on the Southern Piedmont, 1700–1970. Soil Conservation Society of America. Ankeny, IA.

Turner, A.K., R.L. Schuster, DM. Cruden, D.J. Varnes. 1996. Landslides: investigation and mitigation. Transportation research board special report. 247:36-75.

United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service. 2022. Land resource regions and major land resource areas of the United States, the Caribbean, and the Pacific Basin. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agriculture Handbook 296.

United States National Vegetation Classification (USNVC) Database Version 2.04. 2022. Federal Geographic Data Committee, Vegetation Subcommittee. Washington, DC. Available at https://usnvc.org.

Van Lear, D.H, R.A. Harper, P.R. Kapeluck, and W.D. Carroll. 2004. History of Piedmont Forests: Implications for Current Pine Management. General Technical Report SRS–71. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southern Research Station. Asheville, NC.

Weakley, A.S., and Southeastern Flora Team. 2023. Flora of the southeastern United States. University of North Carolina Herbarium, North Carolina Botanical Garden, Chapel Hill, NC.

Contributors

Yogev Erez
Dee Pederson

Approval

Charles Stemmans, 5/02/2025

Rangeland health reference sheet

Interpreting Indicators of Rangeland Health is a qualitative assessment protocol used to determine ecosystem condition based on benchmark characteristics described in the Reference Sheet. A suite of 17 (or more) indicators are typically considered in an assessment. The ecological site(s) representative of an assessment location must be known prior to applying the protocol and must be verified based on soils and climate. Current plant community cannot be used to identify the ecological site.

Author(s)/participant(s)
Contact for lead author
Date	05/04/2025
Approved by	Charles Stemmans
Approval date
Composition (Indicators 10 and 12) based on	Annual Production

Indicators

Number and extent of rills:
Presence of water flow patterns:
Number and height of erosional pedestals or terracettes:
Bare ground from Ecological Site Description or other studies (rock, litter, lichen, moss, plant canopy are not bare ground):
Number of gullies and erosion associated with gullies:
Extent of wind scoured, blowouts and/or depositional areas:
Amount of litter movement (describe size and distance expected to travel):
Soil surface (top few mm) resistance to erosion (stability values are averages - most sites will show a range of values):
Soil surface structure and SOM content (include type of structure and A-horizon color and thickness):
Effect of community phase composition (relative proportion of different functional groups) and spatial distribution on infiltration and runoff:
Presence and thickness of compaction layer (usually none; describe soil profile features which may be mistaken for compaction on this site):
Functional/Structural Groups (list in order of descending dominance by above-ground annual-production or live foliar cover using symbols: >>, >, = to indicate much greater than, greater than, and equal to):

Dominant:

Sub-dominant:

Other:

Additional:
Amount of plant mortality and decadence (include which functional groups are expected to show mortality or decadence):
Average percent litter cover (%) and depth ( in):
Expected annual annual-production (this is TOTAL above-ground annual-production, not just forage annual-production):
Potential invasive (including noxious) species (native and non-native). List species which BOTH characterize degraded states and have the potential to become a dominant or co-dominant species on the ecological site if their future establishment and growth is not actively controlled by management interventions. Species that become dominant for only one to several years (e.g., short-term response to drought or wildfire) are not invasive plants. Note that unlike other indicators, we are describing what is NOT expected in the reference state for the ecological site:
Perennial plant reproductive capability:

Download reference sheet

Click on box and path labels to scroll to the respective text.

States 1, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)

1. Reference State: Mixed Mesophytic Colluvial Forest

5. Pasture/Hayland State

6. Cropland State

States 2, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)

2. Secondary Succession State

5. Pasture/Hayland State

6. Cropland State

T1A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T1B	-	Selective removals of the most valuable timber specimens, leaving inferior trees behind.
T1C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T1D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T2A	-	Long-term natural succession.
T2B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T2C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T2D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T3A	-	Clearcut logging or other large-scale disturbances that cause canopy removal.
T3C	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T3D	-	Mechanical tree/brush/stump/debris removal, seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T4A	-	Abandonment of forestry practices.
T4B	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.
T4C	-	Timber harvest, mechanical stump and debris removal, seedbed preparation, fertilizer/lime, weed control, planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T5A	-	Long-term cessation of grazing.
T5B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T5C	-	Seedbed preparation, applications of fertilizer/lime, weed control, and planting of crop or cover crop seed.
T6A	-	Agricultural abandonment.
T6B	-	Site preparation and tree planting.
T6C	-	Seedbed preparation, weed control, and planting of perennial grasses and forbs.

State 2 submodel, plant communities

2.1. Forested Successional Phase

2.2. Shrub-dominated Successional Phase

2.3. Herbaceous Early Successional Phase

2.1A	-	Clearcut logging.
2.2A	-	Natural succession.
2.2B	-	Brush management.
2.3A	-	Natural succession.

State 6 submodel, plant communities

6.1. Conservation-management Cropland Phase

6.2. Conventional-management Cropland Phase

6.1A	-	Conventional tillage is reintroduced.
6.2A	-	Implementation of conservation tillage and other soil conservation practices

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Natural ResourcesConservation Service

Ecological site PX136X00X340

Mesic Temperature Regime, Acidic Upland Colluvial Forest

Last updated: 5/02/2025 Accessed: 05/19/2025

General information

MLRA notes

LRU notes

Classification relationships

Ecological site concept

Associated sites

Similar sites

Figure 1. EPA level IV ecoregions of the Southern Piedmont (45).

Figure 2. Spatial illustration of soil temperature regimes of the Southern Piedmont.

Figure 3. Spatial extent of this ecological site representing the major areas where this site is important on the landscape.

Table 1. Dominant plant species

Legacy ID

Ecosystem states

States 1, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)

States 2, 5 and 6 (additional transitions)

State 2 submodel, plant communities

State 6 submodel, plant communities

Natural Resources
Conservation Service

Last updated: 5/02/2025
Accessed: 05/19/2025