Wet Meadow
Scenario model
Current ecosystem state
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Management practices/drivers
Select a transition or restoration pathway
- Transition T1A More details
- Transition T2A More details
- Transition T2B More details
- Transition T2C More details
- Transition T2D More details
- Restoration pathway R3A More details
- Restoration pathway R4A More details
- Restoration pathway R5A More details
- Restoration pathway R6A More details
- Restoration pathway R7A More details
- Restoration pathway R7B More details
- Restoration pathway R7C More details
- Restoration pathway R7D More details
- Transition T8A More details
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No transition or restoration pathway between the selected states has been described
Target ecosystem state
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Description
This site develops under Northern Great Plains climatic conditions which include frequent droughts and wide fluctuations in temperature and precipitation which can result in both short-term and long-term changes in water levels and water chemistry (e.g., alkalinity/salinity). Hydrology, water chemistry, grazing, and fire can all serve as important drivers of this site. Hydrology is mainly a factor of landscape position, including the size of the contributing watershed, connectivity to other basins, and whether the basin has an outlet. Water chemistry is influenced by soil chemistry and whether the site is a recharge, flow-through, or discharge site.
This state is typically co-dominated by a mixture of cool-season and warm-season graminoids (mainly woolly sedge, wheat sedge, and Sartwell’s sedge) along with prairie cordgrass and northern reedgrass. Prior to European influence, the primary disturbance mechanisms for this site in the reference condition included water level fluctuations, periodic fire, and grazing by large herding ungulates. Spring snowmelt runoff and rainfall events, coupled with timing of fires and grazing events, dictated the dynamics that occurred within the natural range of variability. Along with water level fluctuations and water chemistry, present day primary disturbances are from concentrated livestock grazing and a lack of fire. Under these conditions, vegetation for livestock and wildlife can be expected to decline along with a corresponding increase in less desirable vegetation.
Wet Meadow ecological sites are highly influenced by water levels (including saturated soil), water movement, and water chemistry (i.e., discharge and recharge hydrology). Water levels influence fire effectiveness and livestock use. Water levels also influence exotic species invasion. As Wet Meadow sites draw down, drying and losing soil moisture, they transition to functioning as an upland ecological site and can increase in salinity/alkalinity. Exotic grasses and forbs begin to invade starting from the upland edge of the Wet Meadow ecological site moving toward the deeper portion of the wetland. Many factors will dictate the speed of exotic species invasion including duration of draw-down phase, management of the sites during the draw-down phase, changes in soil chemistry, and availability of exotic species seed or plants parts (e.g., propagules).
During extended periods of draw-down, presence of exotic species adjacent to the site and lack of fire or heavy season-long livestock grazing can speed up the invasion of cool-season exotic grasses or forbs such as Canada thistle or sow thistle.
Once the site is invaded, increased water depth can begin to reverse the invasion of exotic species. However, the increase in salt accumulation will be difficult to reverse back to levels prior to extended periods of draw- down. In addition, exotic grasses (e.g., quackgrass) and foxtail barley can tolerate extended periods of inundation or saturation, never totally drowning out along the outer margins of the Wet Meadow site. The continued presence of cool-season exotic grasses prevents the site from transitioning back to State 1: Reference State.
Characteristics and indicators
Because of changes in disturbances and other environmental factors (particularly the widespread occurrence of exotic species), the Reference State is considered to no longer exist.
Resilience management
If intact, the reference state should probably be managed with current disturbance regimes which has permitted the site to remain in reference condition, as well as maintaining the quality and integrity of associated ecological sites. Maintenance of the reference condition is contingent upon a monitoring protocol to guide management.
Submodel
Description
This state may be characterized as consisting of similar community phases as found in the Reference State (i.e., Community Phase 1.1 and 1.2), but the site has now been colonized by exotic plants (e.g., grasses such as Kentucky bluegrass, quackgrass, smooth brome, red top, barnyard grass, or exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass). Canada thistle is also a frequent exotic on the state. Although the state is still dominated by native cool-season grasses and graminoids, an increase in the exotic grasses can be expected.
These exotic grasses have been particularly and consistently invasive under extended periods of non-use and no fire. To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial techniques (e.g., prescribed grazing, prescribed burning, other) be carefully constructed, monitored, and evaluated with respect to that objective. If management does not include measures to control or reduce these exotic grasses, the transition to State 3: Invaded State should be expected.
Willows (e.g., Bebb willow) may be present in this state. They may markedly increase, particularly during periods of infrequent fire (i.e., +/- 5-10 year intervals), leading to the transition to State 3: Wooded State (T2A).
Restoration of State 2: Native/Invaded State back to State 1: Reference State is not considered to be achievable. However, it should be noted that, if the major invader is reed canarygrass, prescribed grazing techniques that target reed canarygrass may be a good choice for restoration efforts because the species is not very tolerant of heavy grazing.
Characteristics and indicators
The presence of trace amounts of exotic grasses indicates a transition from State 1 to State 2. The presence of exotic biennial leguminous forbs (e.g., sweet clover) may not, on their own, indicate a transition from State 1 to State 2 but may facilitate that transition.
Resilience management
To slow or limit the invasion of these exotic grasses, it is imperative that managerial techniques (e.g., prescribed grazing, prescribed burning) be carefully constructed, monitored, and evaluated with respect to that objective.
Grazing management should be applied that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. This may include: (1) grazing when exotic grasses are actively growing and native cool-season grasses are dormant; (2) applying proper deferment periods allowing native grasses to recover and maintain or improve vigor; (3) adjusting overall grazing intensity to reduce excessive plant litter (above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 – see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet); (4) incorporating early heavy spring utilization which focuses grazing pressure on exotic grasses and reduces plant litter, provided that livestock are moved when grazing selection shifts from exotic grasses to native grasses.
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that maintains or enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species. Prescribed burns should be applied as needed to adequately reduce/remove excessive plant litter and maintain the competitive advantage for native species. Timing of prescribed burns (spring vs. summer vs. fall) should be adjusted to account for differences in annual growing conditions and applied during windows of opportunity to best shift the competitive advantage to the native species.
Submodel
Description
This state occurs throughout the MLRA and often results from extended periods of infrequent fire. A threshold leading to this state appears to occur over 5-10 years +/- of no fire. Bebb willow and many other willows resprout following burns. A vigorous sprouting response, in combination with increased growth (e.g., size, canopy cover), and reduced fine fuel loads beneath the canopy often enables the willows to increase with infrequent fires. Older, larger plants survive the fires while smaller and younger plants resprout following a burn. Over time, the willows may form rather extensive stands or thickets. A marked increase in non-use management and active fire suppression since European influence has enabled this state to expand and become more widespread. The site may also be invaded by Russian olive.
Characteristics and indicators
The dominance of woody species (by cover and production) distinguishes this state from other herbaceously dominated states.
Resilience management
This state is resistant to change in the long-term absence of fire. Restoration efforts would require the use of prescribed fire, mechanical treatment, and prescribed grazing. Considerable time and effort will be required to restore to other States.
Submodel
Description
This state is similar to Community Phase 2.1, but exotic species now dominate the site. Foxtail barley is a conspicuous component of the community; however, the exotic grasses make up the bulk of the vegetation. Several exotic grasses may be present (alone or in combination) and include barnyard grass, quackgrass, smooth brome, redtop, and/or exotic strains or hybrids of reed canarygrass. Common exotic forbs include Canada thistle, kochia, lambsquarters, and field sowthistle. Marsh fleabane (aka swamp ragwort) is also occasionally abundant on the site during drawdowns.
Characteristics and indicators
This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses and grass-like species constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.
Resilience management
(i.e., management strategies that will sustain a state and prevent a transition). Salinity levels need to be considered when developing management alternatives. Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning, and/or brush management may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g., western snowberry) populations.
Submodel
Description
This community is the freshwater phase of the Invaded State and appears similar to Community Phase 2.2. Exotic grasses dominate the site and may consist of quackgrass, smooth brome, and barnyard grass (alone or in combination). Although foxtail barley may be present, it is much reduced compared to that of State 4: Invaded/Saline State. Canada thistle, field sowthistle, and lambsquarters are common forbs.
Characteristics and indicators
This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses and grass-like species constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.
Resilience management
Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning, and/or brush management may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g., western snowberry) populations.
Submodel
Description
This state results from eutrophication and sedimentation of the site, often due to tillage on or adjacent to the site. Depending upon what seeds, rhizomes, and propagules are present in the substrate, monotypic stands of hybrid cattails or exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass generally develop. A rise in water levels, particularly when in association with wetlands, may also lead to dominance by cattails.
Characteristics and indicators
This site is characterized by exotic cool-season grasses constituting greater than 30 percent of the annual production and native grasses and grass-likes constituting less than 40 percent of the annual production.
Resilience management
Light or moderately stocked continuous, season-long grazing or a prescribed grazing system which incorporates adequate deferment periods between grazing events and proper stocking rate levels will maintain this State. Application of herbaceous weed treatment, occasional prescribed burning, and/or brush management may be needed to manage noxious weeds and increasing shrub (e.g., western snowberry) populations.
Submodel
Description
This state is highly variable depending on the level and duration of disturbance related to the T8A pathway. In this MLRA, the most probable origin of this state is plant succession following crop abandonment. This plant community will initially include a variety of annual forbs and grasses, some of which maybe noxious weeds.
Characteristics and indicators
Tillage has destroyed the native plant community, altered soil structure and biology, reduced soil organic matter, and resulted in the formation of a tillage induced compacted layer which is restrictive to root growth. Removal of perennial grasses and forbs results in decreased infiltration and increased runoff.
Resilience management
Continued tillage will maintain the state. Control of noxious weeds will be required.
Submodel
Mechanism
This transition from the State 1: Reference State to State 2: Native/Invaded State occurs over several years of non-use and no fire or heavy season-long grazing. Exotic grasses (such as Kentucky bluegrass, quackgrass, smooth brome, red top, barnyard grass, or exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass) invade the site. Other exotic plants (e.g., hybrid cattail, Canada thistle, Russian olive) may also invade the site.
Constraints to recovery
Current knowledge and technology will not facilitate a successful restoration to Reference State.
Mechanism
This is the transition from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 3: Wooded State. It often results from extended periods of infrequent fire. This transition appears to cross a threshold after 5-10 years +/- of no fire. Bebb willow and many other willows resprout following burns. A vigorous sprouting response, in combination with increased growth (e.g., size, canopy cover), and reduced fine fuel loads beneath the canopy often enables the willows to survive subsequent fires, and perhaps even expand coverage.
Constraints to recovery
The extended fire interval may make recovery doubtful due to the abundance of exotic cool-season grasses and lack of native grasses. Fire intensity along with consumption of available fuels may cause incomplete or patchy burns. Continued recruitment of tree seeds from adjacent sites will hamper site restoration.
Reticence to undertake tree removal and the perception that trees may be a desirable vegetation component for wildlife habitat, carbon sequestration, aesthetics, etc. are some of the constraints to recovery. Managers wanting to manage the site for deer, livestock, or grassland nesting birds will need to consider the intensive management required to restore and maintain the site in State 2. The disturbance regime necessary to restore this site to State 2: Native/Invaded State is very labor intensive and costly; therefore, addressing woody removal earlier in the encroachment phase is the most cost-effective treatment for woody control.
Mechanism
This transition from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 4: Invaded/Saline State is due to heavy season-long grazing during times of below average precipitation leading to lowered water depth and brackish (alkalinity/salinity) conditions (discharge site).
Constraints to recovery
Variations in growing conditions (e.g., cool, wet spring) will influence effects of various management activities on exotic cool-season grass populations.
Mechanism
This is the transition from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 5: Invaded/Fresh Water State during times of lowered water depth and freshwater conditions in conjunction with heavy season-long grazing.
Constraints to recovery
Variations in growing conditions (e.g., cool, wet spring) will influence effects of various management activities on exotic cool-season grass populations.
Mechanism
This is the transition from State 2: Native/Invaded State to State 6: Invaded/Eutrophication State resulting from eutrophication and sedimentation of the site, often due to tillage on or adjacent to the site. Hybrid cattail or exotic strains/hybrids of reed canarygrass become dominant. A rise in water levels, particularly when in association with Shallow Marsh ecological sites, may also lead to dominance by cattails.
Constraints to recovery
Variations in growing conditions (e.g., cool, wet spring) will influence effects of various management activities on exotic cool-season grass populations.
Mechanism
This is the restoration pathway from State 3: Wooded State to State 2: Native/Invaded State due to high willow mortality resulting from mechanical treatment followed by prescribed burning. The prescribed burning will likely require repeated treatments because many of the willows will resprout following one burn.
Context dependence
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g., available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fuel type (herbaceous vs. shrub vs. tree), fine fuel amount and orientation; (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g., backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on woody and exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm-season grasses).
The method of brush management will be site specific but generally the goal would be to apply the pesticide, mechanical control, or biological control (either singularly or in combination) in a manner that shifts the competitive advantage from the targeted species to the native grasses and forbs. The control method(s) should be as specific to the targeted species as possible to minimize impacts to non-target species.
Mechanism
This is the restoration of State 4: Invaded/Saline State to State 2: Native/Invaded State resulting from extended periods of above average precipitation causing an increase in ponding depth above the height of most exotic grasses. This results in considerable mortality and is sufficient to move the plant composition to more freshwater species.
Context dependence
Salinity levels need to be considered when developing management alternatives. Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species.
Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g., September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded.
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g., available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation; (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g., backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm- season grasses).
The longer this community phase exists, the more resilient it becomes. Natural or management disturbances that reduce the cover of cool-season exotic grasses are typically short-lived.
Mechanism
This is the restoration of State 5: Invaded/Fresh Water State to State 2: Native/Invaded State during extended periods of above average precipitation leading to an increase in water depth above the height of most exotic grasses, resulting in considerable mortality and sufficient to move the plant composition to more freshwater species.
Context dependence
Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species.
Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g., September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded.
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g., available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation; (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g., backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm- season grasses).
The longer this community phase exists, the more resilient it becomes. Natural or management disturbances that reduce the cover of cool-season exotic grasses are typically short-lived.
Mechanism
This is the restoration pathway from State 6: Invaded/Eutrophication State to State 2: Native/Invaded State resulting from extended periods of above average precipitation leading to increased water depth and chemical treatment, mechanical treatment, sediment removal, prescribed burning, and reseeding.
The aquatic version of glyphosate herbicide has been shown to be an effective method in restoration efforts. Reseeding or the planting of plugs of plants (e.g., prairie cordgrass) has also been effective. Physically removing the sediment and associated rhizomes, seeds, etc. above the historical surface (A) horizon, coupled with reseeding and replanting adapted plants, is the most effective method of restoration.
Context dependence
Grazing management should be applied in a manner that enhances/maximizes the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. This may include the use of prescribed grazing to reduce excessive plant litter accumulations above that needed for rangeland health indicator #14 (see Rangeland Health Reference Worksheet). Increasing livestock densities may facilitate the reduction in plant litter provided length and timing of grazing periods are adjusted to favor native species.
Grazing prescriptions designed to address exotic grass invasion and favor native species may involve earlier, short, intense grazing periods with proper deferment to improve native species health and vigor. Fall (e.g., September, October) prescribed burning followed by an intensive, early spring graze period with adequate deferment for native grass recovery may shift the competitive advantage to the native species, facilitating the restoration to State 2: Native/Invaded.
Prescribed burning should be applied in a manner that enhances the competitive advantage of native grass and forb species over the exotic species. Prescribed burns should be applied at a frequency which mimics the natural disturbance regime, or more frequently as is ecologically (e.g., available fuel load) and economically feasible. Burn prescriptions may need adjustment to: (1) account for change in fine fuel orientation; (2) fire intensity and duration by adjusting ignition pattern (e.g., backing fires vs head fires); (3) account for plant phenological stages to maximize stress on exotic species while favoring native species (both cool- and warm- season grasses).
The longer this community phase exists, the more resilient it becomes. Natural or management disturbances that reduce the cover of cool-season exotic grasses are typically short-lived.
Mechanism
This restoration pathway from State 7: Go-Back State to State 2: Native/Invaded State may be accomplished through a successful hydrological restoration (e.g., breaking tile or plugging a drain) followed by a successful range planting along the buffer and adjacent uplands. The likelihood of a successful wetland restoration through hydrological restoration, planting, increased water regime, chemical treatment, and/or sediment/ nutrient removal is limited due the persistence of exotic invasive species, such as hybrid cattail or reed canarygrass. A successful upland restoration is also needed to reduce the likelihood of exotic species invasion or continued sedimentation or nutrient loading. It is more likely that a wetland restoration effort that is successful will eventually end up in State 2 Native/Invaded State.
Context dependence
Reed canarygrass and hybrid cattail are difficult to control, largely due to vigorous spreading rhizomes, high seed production, and a large seed bank. Various control techniques may show signs of success but are often short-term with vegetation reverting within a few years. Adjacent upland ecological sites will need to remain intact or reseeded to native species to prevent sedimentation and nutrient loading to the Shallow Marsh ecological site.
Prescribed grazing (e.g., heavy seasonal), high-intensity burns, and herbicides have shown some success in reducing the dominance by reed canarygrass. However, within several years the vegetation often reverts.
Herbicides can be effective in reducing or eliminating hybrid cattail and can be followed by reseeding (or plugging) desirable species. Prescribed burning has also been effective during dry periods where fire temperatures may kill rhizomes and seeds. Although expensive, mechanical removal of the substrate has also been an effective technique.
Mechanism
This restoration pathway from State 7: Go-Back State to State 4: Invaded/Saline State occur with salinity and a successful hydrological restoration with no/failed range planting.
Context dependence
Reed canarygrass and hybrid cattail are difficult to control, largely due to vigorous spreading rhizomes, high seed production, and a large seed bank. Various control techniques may show signs of success but are often short-term with vegetation reverting within a few years.
Prescribed grazing (e.g., heavy seasonal), high-intensity burns, and herbicides have shown some success in reducing the dominance by reed canarygrass. However, within several years the vegetation often reverts.
Herbicides can be effective in reducing or eliminating hybrid cattail and can be followed by reseeding (or plugging) desirable species. Prescribed burning has also been effective during dry periods where fire temperatures may kill rhizomes and seeds. Although expensive, mechanical removal of the substrate has also been an effective technique.
Mechanism
This restoration pathway from State 7: Go-Back State to State 5: Invaded/Fresh Water State occurs with fresh water and a successful hydrological restoration with no/failed range planting.
Context dependence
Reed canarygrass and hybrid cattail are difficult to control, largely due to vigorous spreading rhizomes, high seed production, and a large seed bank. Various control techniques may show signs of success but are often short-term with vegetation reverting within a few years.
Prescribed grazing (e.g., heavy seasonal), high-intensity burns, and herbicides have shown some success in reducing the dominance by reed canarygrass. However, within several years the vegetation often reverts.
Herbicides can be effective in reducing or eliminating hybrid cattail and can be followed by reseeding (or plugging) desirable species. Prescribed burning has also been effective during dry periods where fire temperatures may kill rhizomes and seeds. Although expensive, mechanical removal of the substrate has also been an effective technique.
Mechanism
This restoration pathway from State 7: Go-Back State to State 6: Invaded/Eutrophication State occurs with eutrophication, sedimentation, a successful hydrological restoration with no/failed range planting.
Context dependence
Reed canarygrass and hybrid cattail are difficult to control, largely due to vigorous spreading rhizomes, high seed production, and a large seed bank. Various control techniques may show signs of success but are often short-term with vegetation reverting within a few years.
Prescribed grazing (e.g., heavy seasonal), high-intensity burns, and herbicides have shown some success in reducing the dominance by reed canarygrass. However, within several years the vegetation often reverts.
Herbicides can be effective in reducing or eliminating hybrid cattail and can be followed by reseeding (or plugging) desirable species. Prescribed burning has also been effective during dry periods where fire temperatures may kill rhizomes and seeds. Although expensive, mechanical removal of the substrate has also been an effective technique.
Mechanism
This is the transition from any plant community to State 7: Go-Back State. It is commonly associated with the cessation of cropping without the benefit of range planting, resulting in a “go-back” situation. Soil conditions can be quite variable on the site, in part due to variations in the management/cropping history (e.g., development of a tillage induced compacted layer (plow pan), erosion, fertility, and/or herbicide/pesticide carryover). Thus, soil conditions should be assessed when considering restoration techniques.
Model keys
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The Ecosystem Dynamics Interpretive Tool is an information system framework developed by the USDA-ARS Jornada Experimental Range, USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service, and New Mexico State University.